pupils write out their impressions of the books for the pupils. In this way the teachers influgiving them notebooks for the purpose. The ence the home reading of pupils and whole books are used for composition work and to families; 1or what the children read will be supplement the course of study. Those trouble- read by the other members of the family. some pupils who always get their lessons too People who never go to the library are thus insoon are kept quiet by being allowed to use duced to read. them. In some schools, the choicest book is In one library, care is taken to have pictures set aside as a reward of merit, the most satis- of birds, flowers, animals, and insects to supfactory pupil being allowed to take the book plement the nature work in the schools. These home for a given length of time. A bound pictures are as interesting to the primary puvolume of “Harper's Young People” was so pils as to the older ones. The teacher's indiused. Some high schools have library classes. viduality must enter largely into the way in The pupils read the books and then meet to which the library is used by her pupils. discuss them. The librarians, teachers, and

EDNA D. BULLOCK, superintendents in different cities publish lists Helena, Montana.

EDITORIAL
Library Legislation

the introduction of business principles in muHE interest everywhere manifest on this nicipal affairs. The people of the state have a subject is encouraging. It indicates a

right to demand that state institutions be manslight turning away from the things of

aged on business principles. They should be glamor to those measures that develop the community through the individual. The western managed with an eye single to the result destates vie with those of the East in this move

sired. Schools for the delinquents should be ment. There are two avenues that are open to managed with the sole purpose of sending back every state and to all the people. These are to the public boys and girls who will become not inconsistent, the one with the other. They useful citizens. Not a dollar should be exare “Traveling Libraries,” conducted by a

pended, not an hour's work should be called for state library commission, and “Public School

that does not tend to this result. Shoemaking Libraries,” conducted by each school board, should not be carried on to get shoes, but to rural and city, for the benefit of the whole make shoemakers; farm operations should not community. This last may be secured even by be conducted for the produce of the fields, but as small a tax as one-half mill per year. Lists

for the development of health and muscle and of books could be printed annually by a Library skill. It is as wrong to make these schools selfComioission, from which school boards could supporting as to try to make our regular day make their selections. Contented people are

schools self-supporting. It is a shame to point good citizens. Libraries that bring to the hum- to any production from these institutions exblest community the great men and women of cept as illustrating the great purpose of the all ages do more to make a contented and happy school—the training of capable and useful people than any other agency.

citizens.

The public is too indifferent. Public men Schools for Defectives and Delinquents are too indifferent. The conduct of too many

HE suggestions made in these columns of these institutions is out of harmony with the last month relative to the education of spirit of the age. No sound reason can be

defectives and delinquents have met given against the suggestions made last month with favor from a great many public men. for a special board of control-two of whom Common sense and patriotism both demand a should be school men and the appointment of lessening of the number of political appoint- school men as superintendents. It is right and ments. The people of our cities are demanding reasonable and should prevail.

T

1898)

PUBLIC SCHOOL ECONOMY

199

T

Public School Economy

work, simple iron work, cooking and sewing, HE American people shojit apply to the should boʻás much a part of every public school management of their schools the sound- course as grammar and arithmetic. The school

est principles of economics. Teachers will then more nearly pay 100 per cent on inshould insist, patrons should demand, that

vestment and maintenance. It is economy to economy should be the watchword in all school adıl anything to the course that will aid in promatters. But this word does not necessarily

ducing a better finished product. mean retrenchment. It must be considered The same principle that justifies the expendiwith reference to what is expected—the kind

ture of a dollar for the education of children and quality of finished product. The people who can attend the day school will justify the of our cities especially are criminally extrava- establishment and support of night schools for gant, often in several particulars. They select

those who are not able to attend during the incompetent, dishonest, and generally unfit men usual school hours. Night schools should be a for the directory. The same business sense part of every town and city school system. To should be shown as is shown by the stockhold- deny this is to say that the schools are supported ers of a great financial enterprise. Too often as a charity or as a luxury for those who can they allow these directors to select incompetent attend. The state should look upon the school experts as superintendents. They too often as a means of its own development in the devel. allow these directors to tie the hands of a suc- opment of its citizens.

The night schools cessful expert in the matter of selecting teach

should not be conducted as "poor schools” any ers. This is the worst form of extravagance more than the day schools. Its courses should known in America to-day. If the public is be systematically arranged, certificates of projustified in spending one dollar for schools it is motion granted as in the day schools. These wrong to spend one cent of that dollar for courses should include arithmetic, algebra, and service that is not reasonably sure to aid in geometry, English grammar, rhetoric, and literthe perfection of the finished product-an hon

ature, physiology, United States history, civil est and capable American citizen. Millions of government, drawing, writing, reading, geogdollars are wasted in teachers' wages annually. raphy, manual training, with wood work, cookThese cases are not where teachers are paid ing, and sewing, at least. $60 or $75 per month as often as where they The public school should conduct a public liare paid $35 per month.

per month. An incompetent brary for all the people. The greatest period workman is not retained in a watch factory of usefulness of a library for any individual is merely because he will work cheap. He oc

during his school years. Tastes and habits are cupies the room that an expert should have, he

formed that influence one for life. ruins too much raw material, and his incom

The high schools of our larger cities espepetence detracts from the work of those who cially should offer extension courses or lectures take the next steps in the making of the watch. in history, literature, physiology, civics, and No director of a watch factory would ask the municipal government. superintendent to employ a nephew or a friend

The public school buildings should be open without regard to his fitness for the work.

for any public use that is intended to be of in

terest and profit to the intellectual, moral, or His pocket-book is affected.

economic welfare of the people. If the school is supported it ought to train

It is not economy for the school buildings to the whole child. This can not be done without be closed sixteen weeks of every year.

Vacgthe manual training department. It is just tion schools offering courses in manual training, as important that the hand be trained as the music, kindergarten, drawing, and physical cul

ture should be conducted as regularly and sysmemory or imagination. The school as con

tematically as are the regular nine months' ducted to day tends to make our youth look

schools. This nation has much to learn on pubdown upon and shun all forms of manual la

lic school economy, and the people must put bor. This is un-American and therefore dan- students and not politicians on the directory of gerous. Manual training, including wood this great institution.

Some New Books

The December Magazines Stepping Stones to Literature, by Sarib-Arngid, aña: Atlantie Noithly: - The United States and the Control C. B. Gilbert, Silver Burdett & Co., publishers. of the Tropics; The Name of Old Glory, 1898, James These new readers, eight in number, constitute the Whitcomb Riley; European Experience with Tropical greatest contribution to text-book literature of the Colonies; Our Government of Newly Acquired Terricentury.

tory; Confessions of a Summer Colonist, W. D. Howells; They contain the best literature of the world. Good Among the Birds of the Yosemite, John Muir; The readers can not be made by any other. Oral reading Autobiography of a Revolutionist, III., P. Kropotkin; and information do not go together. Nature readers, The Landscape as a Means of Culture, N. S. Shaler; geography readers, etc., are not adapted to oral work, Unpublished Letters of Carlyle, IV.; California and and should not be used for such purpose. Among the the Californians, David Starr Jordan; The Wholesome authors are Celia Thaxter, Longfellow, Wordsworth, Revival of Byron; An Unpublished Poem by Byron; Alice Carey, Coleridge, Anderson, Jane Taylor,

Bay- Reminiscences of Julia Ward Howe, I., Julia Ward ard Taylor, Phoebe Cary, Bryant, Eugene Field, Helen Howe; The Battle of the Strong, XL-XLIII., Gilbert Hunt Jackson, Kingsley, Robert Louis Stevenson, Mrs. Parker; Old Homes, Madison Cawein. Stowe, Whittier, Beecher, Butterworth, Rufus Choate, The Chautauquan. -Madonna and Child; The Nativity; Emerson, General Gordan, Halleck, Hawthorne, Hol- The Immensity of London (illustrated ); Telegraphs land, Holmes, and, in fact, almost every author of and Telephones; Sir Robert Peel; The Human Life of prominence is introduced. No other series of readers God; The Central Element of Organized Matter., I.; has ever presented such an amount of good literature. Factory Life and Legislation in England; Woman's The books are larger than any other readers, well bound Work in the War (illustrated ); The Education of and well printed. They are valuable books for any Boys in Italy; The Bartys, A story, chapters III.-V.; home library, and the finest set of school readers on Irritability and Movement; The Present Condition of the market to-day.

France; The Socialist Propaganda in Germany; HisModern American Oratory, edited by Ralph Curtis tory As It is Made (illustrated ). Ringault, Henry Holt & Co., New York, Price $1.00. The Century.--Cover Design by Tissot, “The Visit of This is a very helpful book for all students of oratory the Magi;" Christmas Eve; The Passing of Cat Alley, and public speaking It well deserves to be placed in Jacob A. Riis; Christmas at Bethlehem, J. James high school libraries; among the strong chapters are Tissot; The Vizer of the Two-Horned Alexander, in Forensic Oratory, Demonstrative Oratory, Pulpit Ora- two parts, Part II., Frank R. Stockton; Via Crucis, A tory. The suggestions on Introduction, Narration and Romance of the Second Crusade, II., F. Marion CrawDiscussion are helpful. Seven representative orations ford; Alexander the Great, His Victories in Thrace, are given. The orations are by Carl Schuz, J. S. Illyria, and Greece, Benjamin Ide Wheeler; Some of Black, Wendell Phillips, Depew, George William Cur- Lewis Carroll's Child Friends, With Unpublished Lettis, Henry W. Grady, Henry Ward Beecher.

ters by the Author of Alice in Wonderland," S. D. Hand book of Nature Study, by D. Lange, the Mac- Collingwood; Personal Narrative of the "Maine,” By Millan Company, Chicago and New York, publishers. her Commander, II., The Explosion, Capt. Chas. D. Price $1. Probably nothing has been demanded so Sigsbee, U. S. N.; The Sinking of the "Merrimac,” I., vigorously as a book on nature study that would be The Scheme and the Preparations, Richmond Pearson comprehensive, scientific, and yet not too hard for the Hobson, Naval Constructor, U. S. N.; The Many-Sided untrained teacher. This book certainly ought to meet Franklin, Franklin's Physique, Illnesses, and Medical with a favorable reception. The style is good, the sub- Theories, Paul Leicester Ford; The Road 'Twixt jects treated are just the ones to interest teachers, the Heaven and Hell, The Prize Poem in The Century's treatment is admirable, and the illustrations ample. College Competition, Anna Hempstead Branch; Life It follows the seasons, treating of Pond, Lake, and and Society in Old Cuba, IV., (conclusion ), From the Stream, May to July, In the Meadow, July and August; Journal of Jonathan S. Jenkins. Window Flowers, November, Animal Life in the Scribner.-Frontispiece, Daily Bread; Daily Bread, A Woods, The Woods in Autumn, A few Birds in Decem- Poem; In the Rifle-Pits, Richard Harding Davis; John ber, American Big Game, Review of Animal Life. Ruskin as an Artist, M. H.Spielmann; Recent DevelopThis handsome book of 328 pages can be heartily rec- ments of Policy in the United States and their Relation ommended to all teachers who are interested in nature to an Anglo-American Alliance, Rt. Hon. Joseph Chainstudy.

berlain, British Colonial Secretary; The Fall of Manila A Study of English Prose Writers, J. Scott Clark, - August 13, 1898, Captain T. Bentley Mott, U. S. A. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York and Chicago. Price Aide to General Merritt; Mrs. H. Harrison Wells's $2. Professor Clark has struck upon a novel method Shoes, A newspaper story, Jesse Lynch Williams: Stevof studying English literature. He has made selections enson at Play, with an introduction by Lloyd Osbourne; from all the great writers, classifying the selections on A Martial Elegy for Some Lead Soldiers, Robert Louis the line of peculiar characteristics. For example, the Stevenson; The Story of the Revolution-How Peace selections from Addison are on Urbanity, Elegance, Keen was Made, Conclusion, Henry Cabot Lodge, Senator Satire, Moral Elevation, Delicate Humor, Skill in Por- from Massachusetts; Where's Nora? A story, Sarah traiture, Conventionality, Verbal Precision. In addi- Orne Jewett; The Hotel at Pascadores, A Sailor's Yarn, tion to the illustrations, comments are introduced from Arthur Colton. other writers. It is a most valuable book for the St. Nicholas.-The Page of Count Reynaurd: The Boys student of literature in class or in the private library of Siberia; Hiding-places in War Times; The Christ

In Bird Land, Leander S. Keyser. A. C. McClurg & mas-tree Lights, Verse; “Mark V.;” The Sole SurvivCo., Chicago. Mr. Keyser writes as the true lover of ors, Chapters III., IV.,

Picture, “Santa Claus Caught birds. He has indulged in “Wayside Rambles” as a at Last;” Picture, “The Prince and the Dragon; true lover of nature. He has studied birds because he Bright Sides of History, Chapters III., IV.; Football of loved them. His chapters make delightful reading for Long Ago, illustrated from old prints and from photoeven the uninitiated. The leading chapters are Bird graphs Books and Reading for Young Folks. Curios, Arrival of the Birds, Plumage of Young Review of Reviews.-The November Elections; The Birds, Nest Hunting, Where Birds Roost, A Bird's Progress of Peace; The Dowager Empress of China; A Gala Day, Phases of Bird Life (Courtship, Nurseries, Tribute to Col. Geo. E. Waring; The Art of J. James Bird High Schools, Bird Work, Bird Deaths), Browsing Tissatt, with some of his famous pictures from his Life in Other Fields. The book is valuable for the school of Christ. This is the greatest magazine in the world or family library.

for the busy man.

TH

External Criticism: An Analysis of the Sources and Restoration of the Text 'HE work of external criticism is not com- ponnesian war. The work is preceded by an inpleted when the source has been shown to troduction in which he deals with the history of

be genuine and has been localized. It Greece up to his own day. It is self-evident still remains for the student of history to ana- that Thucydides could have witnessed but a small lyze his sources and, in some cases, even to en- part of the events that he recorded; for the deavor to restore the printed or written text, events of his own day, he obtained his informacorrupted by copyists.

tion largely from eye witnesses, while for the The need of text analysis is self-evident. In past he was dependent upon written and oral the first place, all of the events recorded by a tradition.

It is necessary (1) to analyze the witness have not, as a rule, been directly ob- work and, if possible, to separate Thucydides' served by him. Not all parts of his record are personal knowledge from his information deequally valuable and the first-hand evidence rived from other sources; and (2) to learn, if can be separated from the derived only by anal- possible, what the other sources were. ysis. In the second place, as we shall see later, Neither of these operations can be successhistorical facts are established by the agree- fully carried out. For although Thucydides, ment among independent witnesses. It is of in referring to his methods of work, states (I., the first importance, then, that the independ- 22) that he gave “the facts of what was done ence of the witnesses should be established, and in the war............only after investigating them this is done by studying the relation of one accurately in every particular, as far as possisource to another. I shall consider, then, (1) ble,” he seldom, if ever, gives his source of inthe analysis of a single source; and (2) the an- formation. The necessity of proof was not alysis of the relationship existing among sev- realized in his day. Incidentally he tells us eral sources.

that he suffered from the plague (II., 48 ), comFailure to analyze their sources and to dis- manded in Thrace (IV., 104) and was exiled tinguish between what the witness knows first (V., 26); but these statements are not made for hand and what he has derived from others is the purpose of showing us where he obtained one of the characteristics of the uncritical his- his information. torian. Having decided that the work as a whole It ought to be clear by this time that the fact is genuine, and that it was written by a con- that Thucydides wrote the “History of the temporary who lived in the midst of the events Peloponnesian War” does not justify the hisdescribed, the general inference is made that torian in accepting the whole work as the result all the evidence contained in the record must be of bis observations. It is evidently composed source material. This is, of course, as a rule, a of material of unequal value. How unscifalse inference, but it is surprising how long it entifically much of the work has been done in bas taken historical science to get beyond it. the past will be realized when it is stated that

Thucydides wrote the history of the Pelo- the question as to whether the Boeotians mi

grated from Thessaly to Boeotia in early times The period of the French Revolution is a veritahas been often settled in the past by a quota- ble Tummelplatz for untrained historians. No tion from Thucydides (I., 12). When it is where does the neglect of source analysis lead remembered that if there ever was such a to more disastrous results. For the events of migration, it must bave taken place several 1789 the Moniteur and the Archives parlemen hundred years before his day and that the taires are commonly referred to as sources. event must have been without a written record There are copies of the Moniteur dealing with for many generations, it will be easy to com- the events from May 5, 1789, but the publica prehend the desperate straits in which the his- tion of the paper did not begin until Novemtorian finds himself who cites Thucydides on ber of that year. Several years later the such a point and really believes that he has desire to make the file complete for the revolaproved anything by the citation.

tion led the editors to publish the back numA vast amount of time and labor have been bers from May 5 until the real publication expended on the analysis of the Greek and Ro- began. This portion of the paper can, in no man historians. After a careful examination sense, be called a source; it is a second-hand of all the attempts to analyze the sources of compilation. An analysis of the material conRoman history, Dr. Carl Peter (Zur Kritik der tained in it shows that other newspapers (MiraQuellen der älteren Römischen Geschichte, beau's Courrier de Provence), mémoires (Bailly), Halle, 1879) concludes that, for the most part, and contemporary histories (Histoire de la such work can lead to nothing definite (page revolution par deu amis de la liberte) were 166). The same romark would apply to the made use of it. Ranke has an interesting larger part of the written traditions on the his- study on the Moniteur in his “Revolutiontory of Greece. Some of the possibilities, skriege.” He there points out that the compihowever, are shown in Kirchhoff's “Thuky lation for the year 1789 is composed of two dides und sein Urkundenmaterial, Berlin, parts; the second part, dealing with the events 1895," especially in the study of the truce be- happening outside the Assembly, is taken altween Athens and Sparta (IV., 118, 119). most bodily from the history by "Two Friends What our sources are for early Roman history of Liberty,” referred to above. It is clear, may be learned from Pelham (Outlines of Ro- then, that, instead of using the Moniteur, we man History, N. Y., 1893, page 3), namely, the should go back to the source used by the comtradition as established in the time of Livy pilers of the Moniteur. Even here the need of and Dionysius (about first century, B. C.). source analysis will still be felt, for FlammerUnder these circumstances, one would be justi- mont tells us, in his work, “ La journie du 14 fied in saying that we know practically noth- juillet, 1789, Paris, 1892,” that for this great ing about the first few centuries of Roman his- event the work has no original value.” The tory. It is source analysis that has led to these authors utilized the most of the accounts by results. They are negative, it is true, but the eye witnesses that had been published when acceptance of negative results in the place of they composed their history, but as we have unscientific and impossible constructions repre- the same works at our disposal we pass on to sents a distinct step in advance.

them, and begin anew the task of analysis. “Most historians," says Seignobos, “refrain This one example ought to be sufficient to from rejecting a legend till its falsity has been establish the necessity of source analysis. proved, and if by chance no document has been The state of the Archives parlimentaires is preserved to contradict it, they adopt it pro- even worse than that of the Moniteur. The visionally. This is how the first five centuries portion of the work devoted to 1789 was comof Rome are dealt with. This method, unfor- piled about thirty years ago and the chief tunately still too general, helps to prevent his- source was the Moniteur! The work was done tory from being established as a science."

at the expense of the French government. It But more satisfactory results are obtained in is now being done over again by M. Brette. the study of periods nearer our own time. That is a good example of the loss of time and