go to the minds of the parties for our ultimate

TOPIC I. economic facts, for it is there alone that we

TRADING A RIFLE FOR A CANOE. can measure the forces which control the (a) Imagine an environment. material objects of trade, and which are called (6) Is it a social act? into being perhaps by those objects. It is per

(c) Does it establish a rule or “uniformity” !

(d) What is the object of each party? haps true that even as investigators our atten

(e) Is there a public point of view in this case ? tion was first stimulated by material objects; ($) What motives would cause one party to demand but we soon find that they are not the subject

and the other to yield something “to boot,” say a pair

of moccasins ? matter to be handled.

(g) Is their point of view material (i. e., physical) or The confusion that exists in the popular mind immaterial? between utilitarianism and materialism is thus

(h) Do they use a measure or measures of any kind,

like a yard stick in measuring a quantity of cloth? disclosed and explained. Utility is the relation (i) Is either party better off after the trade? Are both of human desire and human welfare with re- better off? Are they better producers? Better conspect to an object; and since it is human desires

(j) Would their gain be more probable if they were and human welfare that concern us, we must dealing in a regular market for rifles and canoes ? look for our subject rather within the minds of

REFERENCES. industrial men and not in material objects.

Davenport, Outlines, Chs. I.-II. Accurate analysis involves the idea of meas Marshall, Principles, Bk. III., Ch. I.-IV. urement, and it is the close association of meas

Hadley, Economics, Ch. III.

Boehm-Bawerk, Positive Theory of Capital, Bk. III., urement with physical objects that conspires

Chs. I.-VI. to chain our minds to them. There is, however, Walker, Political Economy, Part III., Ch. I. no reason why measurement should not be as Jevons, Theory of Political Economy, Ch. I.-III. accurate in the case of a thought, motive, or

W. G. L. Taylor, “Generalization and Economic feeling as in the case of a tree. A test of the Standards,” U. of N. Studies, January, 1897. perfection of a science is certainly the grade of

TOPIC II. mathematical accuracy to which it has attained,

THE PRICE OF COBS ON A MARKET DAY. and since we are, in economics, only dealing (a) What is a “market price"? with the mind, all that is necessary is that we 16) Its relation to the buyers and sellers as a whole? be able to affirm that one motive is as strong

Do they all buy and sell at the same price? Do any?

How many? How many sales on the Board of Trade as, or is twice as strong as, another. Thus, in

are at the prices quoted in the papers? the sale of the canoe, the motive to sell may not (c) Is the supply all the cobs that could be bought be so strong as the motive to acquire the rifle, up, or that are actually on hand, or something else? but may rise to the point of selling when the (d) Is the demand all that people could buy, or somemoccasins are offered to boot. In a money

thing else? How many people?

(e) Environment. Distinguish from essay I.; number using society, people spend their money in di

of persons; time; supply and demand. rect proportion to their desire for things, and (1) What are the constant factors in your reasoning, there it is perfectly right to say that a man and what the variables? Do the constants and varithinks twice as highly of a thing for which he ables change places at different stages?

(g) Is "price” more "regular," less "speculative"; pays twice as much money.

less dependent upon individual advantage or superiorFurther discussion of the circumstances that ity than in paper I. ? surround fluctuating and short-time prices will (h) Do individuals derive any advantage from living not be gone into at present. Enough has been together in this matter of price? How as to their own

production? Their own calculations ? said to enable the student to discuss the question as to whether both parties gain by an ex

REFERENCES. change, as to their usefulness to each other, and

Cairnes' Pol. Econ., Part I., Ch. I.-II., IV.

Laughlin's Mill, Bk. III., Ch. I., SS 1-4. other questions suggested under the topics.

Marshall, Bk. V., Chs. III.-IV., V., SS 1-3 The discussion of subsequent titles will neces

Boehm-Bawerk, Bk. IV., Chs. 1-4. sarily throw light upon the preceding ones, Davenport, Ch. IV.

TOPIC III.

THE PRICE OF FISH ON A MARKET DAY AND IN THE

LONG RIX.

(a) How do fish differ from cobs and hence affect supply? Environment.

(b) What is the effect of these peculiarities on demand and on price?

(c) Are the peculiarities so prominent when we consider fishing as an established industry? Environment.

(d) Can you draw a sharp line between (a), (b), on the one hand, and (c) on the other? The element of

time. The element of foresight and business calculations.

(e) What difference on social development and civilization does this essay presuppose from essay II.? Is the market price more or less a uniformity for all society? Can we, in any sense, look on society as a unit?

(f) Distinguish the constants and variables of our argument.

g) What relation has your discussion to individuals and to society, as to welfare, as to present people, as to future people?

(h) What advantage does the individual draw from a market?

W. G. LANGWORTHY TAYLOR.

Studies in Literature

CHAUCER THE object of this month's work in Chay- Chaucer obscured and almost extinguished

cer should be at least two-fold: to be these important poets, because he caught the

come acquainted with the man and to gain spirit of the times more completely, and gave some first-hand knowledge of his works. It the people what they wanted, and, more than will be desirable and practicable club work, all, did this in a thoroughly common-sense and where there is somewhat greater leisure, to add English way. a brief inquiry into the social and literary con- Not only in things literary but equally in ditions of Chaucer's age, as well as do a little things political, and social, and religious, was reading in and about Piers Plouman.

Chaucer's an age of change. When Chaucer Chaucer, it must be remembered, lived in an began service in the household of Prince age of transition, or, as we are fonder of say- Lionel, London was essentially a foreign capiing, of beginnings. I have heard people of tal. French, not the idiom now so named, but some authority speak of Chaucer as the ear- a dialect spoken in Normandy, was the official liest, the initial author of English literature. language. A little after he had passed his maThe notion is almost ludicrously wrong. There jority, the utterances of the crown and the was a large body of genuine “English” lit- proceedings of the courts were couched and erature, and some of it not inferior to con- carried on in English, the people's language. siderable of Chaucer's work, in existence long In these times also the serfs were manumitted. before Chaucer's time. Then, too, Chaucer The Knights cast their lot with the commons as was not the only author, in popular judgment against the Barons of the Upper House, a cirof his own generation. Not until Chaucer was cumstance that alone insured the Anglican well past forty did he cease to have rivals in liberty of modern days; and the Wiclif or the poetical field, and there is evidence that Lollard movement out of which grew ProtestLangland, author of Piers Ploeman, bad been, antism and Puritanism. up to that time, considerably more in favor. For an outline of this social and political But Langland wrote in an old-fashioned, allit- transformation, it is well to consult Green's erative manner, which, though strong, seemed Brief History of the English People. For a unliterary and provincial. And Gower, the complete discussion of the alliance of the other rival, went to an extreme in the other Knights with the Commons, consult his longer direction, writing in Latin and French as will work. A good book with which to approach ingly as English, and refusing, pedantically, to Chaucer is Sweet's Second Viddle English touch upon the life and issues of the day. Primer. This, in seventy-one pages of extracts, shows us Chaucer in his three periods mood, and such as are found should be recogof authorship: the first or apprenticeship stage; nized as of “kind” or of “ degree.” In the the second, or stage of Italian imitation; and mature compositions of the third period, the the period of his individual and maturest work. true mastership of Chaucer will be revealed. The little manual here named may be used, No man until Shakespeare knows how to paint with its vocabulary, merely as a means of a character so vividly and completely, and few translating the poems given; or, as it is hoped since have had the instinct of portraying realwill be generally resolved upon, as a manual istic and common phases so exquisitely and for the study of the language in which Chaucer naturally. Cases where Chaucer, like Shakewrote his inimitable strains. It is really im- speare, and in present days MacLaren, makes possible to know Chaucer without reading him degree-hints of character do duty for kind and in his own rhythm and diction, a thing not diffi- degree together, should be especially noted and cult, since here all the sounds and silent letters studied. Chaucer's allusions to flowers, and are marked. The latest and in some respects May mornings, should be evaluated with referthe best hand-book for club study of Chaucer is ence to his taste and fondness for the Beautiful Corson's Selections from the Canterbury Tales. in nature. Herein, also, we find “degreeThere are 174 pages of extracts, with full notes, 'effects” of character in the author; and all like and a glossary, the whole scholarly and yet un- marks and measures of personality should be technical and practicable. The chief advantage watched for and studied. More than all, the of Sweet's Middle English Primer over this various characterizations in his Prologue should work is in the fact that Sweet gives selections, be scanned with reference to the sly and subtle not from the Canterbury Tales alone, but from hints of humor, or animus, or sympathy, which the other periods of Chaucer's authorship; and, in this author have meant so much. A few moreover, indicates the pronunciation. There Socratic questions, to indicate this method of should be in the possession of each club of work- interpretative study to such as have little acers at least one copy of Morris's Prologue and quaintance with it, will be here subjoined. Knightes Tale or Corson's Introduction to Chau

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE KNIGHT (11. 43-78 of cer, for helpful notes upon the more important

Prologue ). reading.

1. (a) What was the chivalrie ( 1. 45 ) that this man With the little manual just named each mem- loved? What kind of a man, what degree of such a ber should have a copy of Pollard's Chaucer, kind of man, does this “loving" indicate? (6) Was one of Macmillan's Literature Primers, and the this Knight fighting in hi

this Knight fighting in his lord's wars in all the cam

paigns mentioned here? How do you account for his hest of biographic and critical helps to such a

having been in such dangerous service after Edward purpose. I would strenuously urge that it be III. had no longer any martial energy? (c) What do not studied or read except after work in the you find in the “degree-effect” (1. 69), “he was text of Chaucer has been begun. The cost of meeke as is a mayde”? (d) What, in the next line? the primer is one shilling in England; of Was such refinement of speech usual, ai

class, in Chaucer's time? (e) What, further, do you Sweet's Primer of Middle English, I think two

find in lines 74, 76? And what in the fact that he is shillings; and of Morris's Prologue and Knightes, taking this earliest opportunity to go to the shrine of two shillings and sixpence. The Macmillan Becket? company of New York will furnish these books 2. (a) What do you find in the fact that Chaucerat corresponding American prices. They pub- early and always an habitué of princes' ho

nobody in his procession higher in rank than this lish the whole of Chaucer in the famous Globe

Knight? (6) Do you find Chaucer subtly satirizing series, in a text that marks the silent syllables; this rather remarkable man? Do you think him prejuand the price is but $1.25.

diced against, or out of sympathy with, this sort of In the matter of suggestions for the literary people? (c) What kind of a man, then, was Chaucer study of Chaucer, I suspect that the club- himself women of our state will need small help from CHARACTERIZATION OF THE SQUIRE (11. 79-100). me. The earlier work of Chaucer should be

1. (a) What effect in lovyere (l. 80, and in Bacheler? scanned for “effects” of character, and of (6) Do you take it that the locks were curled (crulle) artificially at all? (c) What degree hints in 11. 89, 90 and 91; also in 95? Do you find here the type of the Anglo-Saxon, or the continental cavalier? (d) Do you judge that their qualities mentioned in II. 99, 100 are at all or chiefly the result of discipline imposed upon him by his father? How does it chance, indeed, that he is his father's squire ?

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE NUN (11. 118 164). 1. (a) What hint of character or consciousness in coy (1. 119); and what in the fact of swearing by Seint Loy, only? What in Il. 124, 128, 129, 131? (b) What in 11. 143-1457 and what relation to conscience (1. 142)? (c)

What signify the many and various forms of elegance (fetys) of dress and manners in one by profession dead to the world? (d) What signifies the union of the brooch with the bedes (11. 158-160)? Why should the brooch bear such a legend? (e) Is there any point in the companions she has taken with her?

2. (a) Is this portraiture made sympathetically or satirically? (6) If it seems the latter, is the satire directed against the nun personally? (c) Do you think the spirit in which the portraiture is made identical with that in which the Monk (Il 165-207) is painted ? Why?

L. A. SHERMAN.

INTRODUCTORY IT has not been long since we heard much not have existed even in his mind. His power 1 about the language of monkeys. We hear to know and to feel would have remained rudi

very little about it now. The enterprising mentary and undeveloped. He needed language, enthusiast who tried to learn a new tongue even for this. So, language is a general term from the four-banded folk succeeded merely also for the various tools the mind uses in crein convincing scientists that man is the ating and shaping its products. only animal that talks. This distinction between Every new word one learns to wield means us and our relatives is one of the very few that something added to one's usefulness to one's evolutionists have left us. We had better self, as well as to others. It means a gain in make the most of it. Our skeletons are not ability to feel or to know—that is, to live. And just like those of other animals, but we can't every new discrimination we master in speech claim much credit on that score. We couldn't means more precision or more sensitiveness in help it if they were, and we can't make the di- the mind. vision wider by taking thought. We can, how- The English language has already conquered ever, develop what skill we may have in speech. the world as no speech ever has before. One

Without trying to define, one may say that need not be a prophet to foretell that its mislanguage is a general term for the means the sion is not yet fulfilled. The great nations and mind uses to make its thoughts and emotions colonies in which our language is spoken are reach other minds. Except in a selfish way, but young in growth and achievment; and Engfor one's own solace or pleasure, a thought or lish is even now to go on to new lands. Where an emotion is quite worthless until it is expressed it goes, history has shown, the common law, the in some form. And the thought or the emo- rights of man, and the liberty of the individual tion is a waste of energy, so far as its use to go also. It is the language of the future. others goes, just in proportion as the expres- It is the language of the future, and has not sion of it is misleading or inadequate. If yet made its history. But it was Chaucer's lanShakespeare had been born dumb and had not guage und Wyclif's, Shakespeare's and Millearned to write, his place in the story of the ton's, Bacon's and Darwin's, Browning's and world would have been merely that of another Tennyson's. burden to society. What existed in his mind So, one need not apologize for devotion to would have been immaterial to us.

the mother tongue. It is a worthy medium for But if Shakespeare had been born dumb and whatever we may have to say. It is accurate had not been taught to understand and to and comprehensive, subtle and grand. The use language, what his writings give us would Greek language is found to repay many years of hard work given to it. Possibly our own habit of reserving the term for what is perfect language would.

in its kind,-for that from which the ineffective The study of English serves various ends. and the detracting are excluded. As Walter The language may be traced much farther into Pater says, “In truth all art does but consist the past than German, Norse, Icelandic, or any in the removal of surplusage, from the last finof the languages intimately related to it. ish of the gem engraver blowing away the last Writings in English in all its stages of develop- particle of invisible dust, back to the earliest ment and in all dialects are preserved and ac- divination of the finished work to be lying cessible. These offer a most inviting field to somewhere, according to Michel Angelo's fancy, one who would investigate the laws which gov- in the rough-hewn block of stone.” It is hardly ern the life and growth of language. The in danger of being forgotten that this accurate problems here are not less difficult than those “divination” is a positive, a creative, process. to the solution of which the student of Greek What to shape and how to shape it,this must or of Sanskirt devotes himself, and they im- be as clear as what to remove or exclude. pose as thorough discipline and training upon The papers to follow this will discuss neither the mind. The student gains, too, such an in- the history of the English language nor corsight into the beginnings of the culture of the rectness in grammatical usage. They cannot, Germanic peoples as nothing else can give him; therefore, serve as a guide to teachers of gramand it is possible for him to trace, step by step, mar. This is not their purpose. They will the progress from these beginnings to the cul- attempt merely to make clear some of the eleture of the Anglo-Saxons of our day.

ments of effectiveness in speech and writing. Again, one may study English with a view to The order and the manner of presentation have using it correctly, grammatically. This study been found helpful in college class-work, not should begin in the kindergarten, for even then as taking the place of grammatical study, but it will never be completed. The most absurd as complemental to it. The papers are written of the stories about Abraham Lincoln is that he solely for those who may wish some suggesmastered English grammar in a month. Eng- tions as to profitable practice in the art of lish grammar has never been mastered, and writing and talking. Such practice might help never will be. Even while one is determining teachers, as it has helped students, to greater the usage of the present, the usage of the future skill in the use of language. And greater skill is establishing itself. One does well if one in this respect might not come more amiss commonly avoids being stopped in ordinary to the teacher than to others. It is not inevitconversation by a doubt as to idiom.

ably disastrous to know something even that one Taking average familiarity with English may never teach at all. grammar for granted, one may go on to inves- The world does not need many great authors, tigate the principles which govern effective and is really in no danger of an overproducspeech and writing. Effectiveness and correct- tion. But in a republic, at least, everyone ness are entirely independent and distinct. Cor- should be able to tell adequately what is in his rectness is highly desirable; but everyone knows mind, with the pen, in conversation, or “in that speech may be correct without being ef- meeting.” If these papers should offer any fective, or even effective without being correct. useful guidance to practice that will assist in Speech, however, cannot be artistic unless it is developing such ability, their object will be effective, and if it is effective it is made so by attained. that wherein it is artistic. The study of art in No directions as to practice will be given unspeech and writing is the study of effectiveness til the next number. It would be very useful, merely. The village loafer who tells a story however, to do a little reading on the general effectively uses the very elements of art that problems to be considered. I shall name three the skilled novelist or playwright employs. books only. They are inexpensive, and everyThe loafer's talk would hardly be called artistic; one who cares to write and talk as well as he but this is because we are fortunately in the can should read all three of them and have