Lexington and Concord reached him while he was ploughing on his farm; he instantly left the plough in the furrow and hastened to Cambridge; and he was later made second brigadier of the Connecticut forces. He was with the force, commanded by Colonel William Prescott, which on the night of the 16th of June fortified Breed's Hill, and on the next day he took a conspicuous part in resisting the British attack (see BUNKER HILL). Soon afterward, on his own authority, he occupied Prospect Hill, an important point for the siege of Boston, in which he commanded the centre (two brigades) of the American army at Cambridge. After the evacuation of Boston he was in command of New York City till Washington's arrival (April 13, 1776), and then was put in general charge of the city's fortifications. Immediately before the battle of Long Island he succeeded. General John Sullivan in command of the troops on Brooklyn Heights, and in the battle of Long Island (of Aug. 27) he was in immediate command of the American side. In the retreat from New York City he commanded one of the three grand divisions, and took part in the battle of Harlem Heights (September 16). His attempt to close the Hudson by sinking vessels in the channel was unsuccessful. In December he was ordered to Philadelphia to superintend the fortification of the city, was stationed at Princeton, New Jersey, from January to May 1777, and in May took command of the Hudson Highlands at Peekskill, which with Forts Montgomery and Clinton he abandoned in October, being out-manœuvred by the British, and having been weakened by Washington's repeated demands for reinforcements. In the spring of 1778 he was superseded by General Alexander McDougall, but in April a court of inquiry acquitted him of "any fault, misconduct or negligence" in connexion with the loss of Forts Montgomery and Clinton. After a few months' recruiting service in Connecticut he returned to the main army at White Plains. In the winter of 1778-1779 he commanded the troops quartered near Redding, Conn., where Putnam Memorial Park now is. In May he took command of the right wing on the west side of the Hudson. An attack of paralysis in December 1779 terminated his active service in the war. He spent his last years on his farm in Brooklyn, Conn., where he died on the 29th of May 1790. A bronze equestrian statue by Karl Gerhardt, over a sarcophagus, was erected at Brooklyn, Conn., by the state in 1888, and there is another statue (1874) in Bushnell Park, Hartford, by J. Q. A. Ward.

Putnam was a brave, intrepid and very industrious soldier rather than a great general, but his fame in the Indian wars, his personal courage, his bluff heartiness and his good-fellowship made him an idol of the rank and file; and he is one of the popular heroes in American history. He seems to have taken no part in the political manoeuvrings and cabals which busied many of the officers of the American army.

See W. F. Livingston, Israel Putnam, Pioneer, Ranger and MajorGeneral (New York, 1901) in the " American Men of Energy" series; I. N. Tarbox, Life of Israel Putnam (Boston, 1876); and Essay on the Life of the Honorable Major-General Israel Putnam (Hartford, 1788; enlarged ed., Boston, 1818), by David Humphreys, for a time Putnam's aide-de-camp.

PUTNAM, RUFUS (1738-1824), American soldier and pioneer, was born in Sutton, Massachusetts, on the 9th of April 1738 (O.S.). His grandfather was a half brother to Israel Putnam's father. He served in the French and Indian War in 1757-60; was a millwright in New Braintree in 1761-1768, during which time he studied surveying; and from 1769 until the War of Independence was a farmer and surveyor. In 1773, with Israel So loose was the army's organization that it is impossible to settle the question whether Putnam or Prescott was in command at Bunker Hill. Apparently their authority did not clash and was practically independent. See Justin Winsor in his Narrative and Critical History, vi. 190-191 (reprinted in Livingston's Israel Putnam, as app. ii.).

On the 26th of February 1779, with a small outpost, he was surprised near Greenwich by a superior force under General William Tryon. He ordered a retreat, started to Stamford for reinforcements and, being closely pursued by several dragoons, is said to have ridden down a steep hill (marked in 1900 with a granite monument), and thus escaped. From Stamford he hastened back with reinforcements and took thirty-eight prisoners from Tryon.

Putnam and two others, he visited West Florida to examine lands which, it was expected, were to be granted to the provincial troops for their services against the French and Indians, and which he charted (see MISSISSIPPI). He became lieutenantcolonel in one of the first regiments raised after the battle of Lexington, and served before Boston; in March 1776 he was made chief engineer of the works at New York; in August he was appointed engineer with the rank of colonel; and when Congress did not act on his plan (submitted in Oct. 1776) for the establishment of a distinct engineer corps he resigned (Dec. 1776), and in 1777 served in the northern army under Major-General Horatio Gates, commanding two regiments in the second battle of Saratoga. In 1778 he laid out fortifications, including Fort Putnam, at West Point, and in 1779 he served under MajorGeneral Anthony Wayne after the capture of Stony Point. For the remainder of the war he saw little active service. In January 1783 he was commissioned brigadier-general. After the war he returned to Rutland, Mass., where he had bought a confiscated farm in 1780. In March 1786 he founded, with other officers of the War of Independence, the Ohio Company of Associates for the purchase and settlement of Western lands. In November 1787, after Congress had made its grant to the Ohio Company, he was appointed by the company superintendent of its proposed settlement on the Ohio, and in 1788 he led the small party which founded Marietta, Ohio. He was a judge of the court of the North-West Territory in 1790-1796; was a brigadier-general in the army and a commissioner to treat with the Indians in 1792-1793; was surveyor-general of the United States in 1796-1803; and in 1802 was a member of the Ohio state constitutional convention. He died, in Marietta, on the 4th of May 1824. He has been called "The Father of Ohio," and he contributed greatly toward the material building up of the North-West Territory.

44

See John W. Campbell, Biographical Sketches (Columbus, Ohio, 1838); Sidney Crawford, Rufus Putnam, and his Pioneer Life in the North-West," vol. xii., new series, pp. 431-454, Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society (Worcester, 1899), and Rowena Buell (ed.), The Memoirs of Rufus Putnam (Boston, 1903), in which his autobiography, his journal and other papers, now in the library of Marietta College, are reprinted. His Journal, 1757-1760, dealing with his experiences in the French and Indian War, was edited with notes by E. C. Dawes (Albany, New York, 1886).

PUTNAM, a city and the county-seat of Windham county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the township of Putnam, on the Quine. baug river, at the mouth of the Mill river, in the N.E. part of the state, about 6 m. from the Rhode Island boundary and about 7 m. from that of Massachusetts. Pop. (1900), of the township (including the city), 7348; of the city, 6667 (2012 being foreign born); (1910) 6637. Putnam is at the intersection of two branches of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and is connected by electric line with Worcester, Norwich and Providence. The city is the seat of two Roman Catholic institutions, St Mary's Convent and Notre Dame Academy, and has a public library and an endowed hospital. The Quinebaug and Mill rivers provide excellent water-power. The township (named in honour of General Israel Putnam) was incorporated in 1855, and the city was chartered in 1895.

PUTTEE, or PUTTIE, the name, adapted from the Hindi patti, bandage (Skr. patta, strip of cloth), for a covering.for the lower part of the leg from the ankle to the knee, consisting of a long narrow piece of cloth wound tightly and spirally round the leg, and serving both as a support and protection, worn especially by riders, and taking the place of the leather or cloth gaiter. It has been adopted as part of the uniform of the mounted soldier in the British army.

PUTTENHAM, GEORGE (d. 1590), the reputed author of The Arte of English Poesie (1589). The book was entered at Stationers' Hall in 1588, and published in the following year with a dedicatory letter to Lord Burghley written by the printer Richard Field, who professed ignorance of the writer's name and position. There is no contemporary evidence for the authorship, and the name of Puttenham is first definitely associated with it in the Hypercritica of Edmund Bolton, published in 1722, but

written in the beginning of the 17th century, perhaps as early as 1605. The writer of the Arte of English Poesie supplies certain biographical details. He was educated at Oxford, and at the age of eighteen he addressed an eclogue entitled Elpine to Edward VI. In his youth he had visited Spain, France and Italy, and was better acquainted with foreign courts than with his own. In 1579 he presented to Queen Elizabeth his Partheniades (printed in a collection of MSS. Ballads by F. J. Furnivall), and he wrote the treatise in question especially for the delectation of the queen and her ladies. He mentions nine other works of his, none of which are extant. There is no direct evidence beyond Bolton's ascription to identify the author with George or Richard Puttenham, the sons of Robert Puttenham and his wife Margaret, the sister of Sir Thomas Elyot, who dedicated his treatise on the Education or Bringing up of Children to her for the benefit of her sons. Both made unhappy marriages, were constantly engaged in litigation, and were frequently in disgrace. Richard was in prison when the book was licensed to be printed, and when he made his will in 1597 he was in the Queen's Bench Prison. He was buried, according to John Payne Collier, at St Clement Danes, London, on the 2nd of July 1601. George Puttenham is said to have been implicated in a plot against Lord Burghley in 1570, and in December 1578 was imprisoned. In 1585 he received reparation from the privy council for alleged wrongs suffered at the hands of his relations. His will is dated the 1st of September 1590. Richard Puttenham is known to have spent much of his time abroad, whereas there is no evidence that George ever left England. This agrees better with the writer's account of himself; but if the statement that he addressed Elpine to Edward VI. when he was eighteen years of age be taken to imply that the production of this work fell within that king's reign, the date of the author's birth cannot be placed anterior to 1529. At the date (1546) of his inheritance of his grandfather, Sir Thomas Elyot's estates, Richard Puttenham was proved in an inquisition held at Newmarket to have been twenty-six years old.

Whoever the author may have been, there is no doubt about the importance of the work, which is the most systematic and comprehensive treatise of the time on its subject. It is "contrived into three bookes: the first of poets and poesies, the second of proportion, the third of ornament." The first section contains a general history of the art of poetry, and a discussion of the various forms of poetry; the second treats of prosody, dealing in turn with the measures in use in English verse, the caesura, punctuation, rhyme, accent, cadence, "proportion in figure," which the author illustrates by geometrical diagrams, and the proposed innovations of English quantitative verse; the section on ornament deals with style, the distinctions between written and spoken language, the figures of speech; and the author closes with lengthy observations on good manners. It is interesting to note that in his remarks on language he deprecates the use of archaisms, and although he allows that the purer Saxon speech is spoken beyond the Trent, he advises the English writer to take as his model the usual speech of the court, of London and the home counties.

PUTTING THE SHOT (or WEIGHT), a form of athletic sports (q.v.). It is the only weight event now remaining in the championship programme which requires a put 'as distinct from a throw, a put being a fair and square push straight from the shoulder, quite distinct from throwing or bowling, which are not allowed in putting the shot. The exercise originated in Great Britain, where, before the formation of the Amateur Athletic Association, the shot (a round weight of 16 lb) was put from a joist about 6 ft. long with a run of 7 ft., the distance being measured

from the impression made by the falling missile to the point on the joist, or a line continuing it, opposite the impression. Hence the putter failed to get the full benefit of any put save a perfectly straight one. The present British rule is that the put shall be made from a 7-ft. square, and the distance taker from the first pitch of the shot to the front line of the square or that line produced, as by the old method. In America the put is made from a 7-ft. circle, and the distance measured from the pitch to the nearest point of the circle, which has a raised edge in front to prevent overstepping and consequent fouls. Individual putters have slight variations of method, but the following description is substantially good for all. The putter stands in the back part of the square or circle with his weight entirely upon his right leg, which is bent. The body is inclined slightly backward, the left arm stretched out in front as a balance, and the right hand, the shot resting in the palm, is held against, or an inch or two from, the neck below and behind the right ear. From this position a hop forward is made with the right leg, the foot landing in the middle of the square and the balance being preserved, so that the right shoulder is kept well back. Then, letting the right | leg bend well down, the athlete springs up with a rapid twist of the body, so that the right shoulder is brought forward, and the right arm is thrust forward with all possible force, the secret being to throw all the weight and power of the body and arm into the put at the very moment of delivery. Mere brute strength and weight have less to do with successful shot-putting than in hammer-throwing or throwing the 56-lb weight, and on this account some comparatively light men have repeatedly beaten larger and taller putters. Thus G. R. Gray, a Canadian by birth, who for many years held the world's record of 47 ft. for the 16-lb shot, was a smaller and less powerful man than several whom he defeated; and another champion of light weight was W. F. Robertson of Scotland, who weighed only 150 lb. Among the best putters of earlier times were E. J. Bor, London Athletic Club, who made a put of 42 ft. 5 in. in 1872; W. Y. Winthrop and G. Ross. The talent of Irish athletes both in Great Britain and America for weight putting and throwing is remarkable, among the most famous of Irish putters being W. J. M. Barry and Denis Hogan, the latter of whom won the amateur championship in seven consecutive years from 1893, and again in 1904 and 1905. The record in 1910 for the 16-lb shot was 51 ft., made at San Francisco in 1909 by R. Rose.

PUTTKAMMER, ROBERT VON (1828-1900), Prussian statesman, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder on the 5th of May 1828. His father, Eugen von Puttkammer, Oberpräsident of Posen, belonged to a widely extended noble family, of which Bismarck's wife and Robert von Puttkammer's own wife were also members. Robert von Puttkammer, after a short course of law, began his official career in 1850 as Auskullator in the courts at Danzig, but in 1852 entered the civil service, receiving after his promotion to the rank of Assessor in 1854 a post in the railway department of the ministry for trade and industry. In 1859 he became a member of the presidial council (Oberpräsidialrat) at Coblenz, capital of the Prussian Rhine province, and from 1860 to 1866 was Landrat at Demmin in Pomerania. During the war with Austria he acted as civil commissary in Moravia. From 1867 to 1871 he was a councillor in the chancery of the North German Confederation. In 1871 he was appointed president of the governmental district of Gumbinnen in East Prussia, in 1875 district president (Bezirks präsident) in Lorraine, and in 1877 Oberpräsident in Silesia. From 1874 onward he was frequently elected to the Reichstag and the Prussian Chamber of Deputies, in which he attached himself to the German Conservative party. Puttkammer was the chosen instrument of the Clerical Conservative policy initiated by Bismarck when the Socialist peril made it expedient to conciliate the Catholic Centre. As Oberpräsident of Silesia he had already done much to mitigate the rigour of the application of the " May Laws," and as minister of public worship and of the interior he continued this policy. He is also remembered as the author of the ordinance of the 21st of January 1880 on the simplification of German orthography. This was at first vigorously opposed, not least by Bismarck himself; but its

and some ship-building is carried on. Pwllheli was incorporated by Edward the Black Prince. At Nevin (Nefyn), 6 m. distant, Edward I. held a tournament or revel, in 1284, on a magnificent scale, to commemorate his conquest of Wales.

PUYLAURENS, ANTOINE DE LAAGE, DUC DE (d. 1635), French courtier, was born of an old Languedoc family. Attached to the household of Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIII., he gained a complete ascendancy over the weak prince by pandering to his pleasures, and became his adviser in the intrigues against Cardinal Richelieu. It was Puylaurens who arranged the escape of Gaston to Brussels in 1632 after the capture of Henri, duc de Montmorency, and then negotiated his return with Richelieu, on condition that he should be reconciled to the king. As a reward Richelieu gave him Aiguillon, erected into a duchy. But he plunged into new intrigues, and was imprisoned first in the Louvre in 1635, then in Vincennes, where he died the same year.

PUZZLE, a perplexing question, particularly a mechanical toy or other device involving some constructional problem, to be solved by the exercise of patience or ingenuity. Some of the oldest mechanical puzzles are those of the Chinese, one of the most familiar being that known as the tangram (chi ch'iao t'ue), which consists of a square of wood or other material cut into five triangles, of different sizes, a small square and a lozenge, which can be so placed as to form over 300 different figures. This puzzle is sometimes made of ivory carved with the delicate workmanship for which the Chinese craftsmen are renowned, and is enclosed in a carved box. Another well-known puzzle is known as the "Chinese rings," consisting of a series of rings running linked together on a bar, the problem being to take them off the bar and replace them. The commonest of all puzzles are coloured maps, pictures ("jig-saw ") or designs, dissected into numerous variously shaped pieces, to be fitted together to form the complete design. A great number of puzzles are based on mathematical principles, such as the fifteen puzzle," the "railway shunting puzzle," and the like.

See W. W. Rouse Ball, Mathematical Recreations and Amusements (1892).

The etymology of the word "puzzle" is disputed. It has been usual to consider that the verb, which appears first at the end of the 16th century, is derived from the substantive, and that

this is an aphetic form of "apposal" or "opposal" i.c. opposition, hence a question for solution, cf. Lydgate, Fall of Princes, quoted by Skeat (Elym. Dict. 1898). The New English Dictionary, however, takes it as clear from the chronological evidence and sense-development that the substantive is derived from the verb, which, in its earliest examples, means to put in embarrassing material circumstances, to bewilder, to perplex. This seems against making "to puzzle" a derivative of "to pose," i.e. oppose," to examine by putting questions. Some connexion may be found with a much earlier word "poselet," confused, bewildered, which does not occur later than the end of the 14th century.

PWLLHELI (“salt pit," or "pool"), a municipal and contributory parliamentary borough (Carnarvon district), seaport and market-town of Carnarvonshire, North Wales, 20 m. S. of Carnarvon and 270 m. from London by rail. Pop. (1901), 3675. It is on the north side of Cardigan Bay, on the shore of Tremadoc Bay, with a sandy beach 4 m. in length and good bathing. It is the terminus of the Cambrian railway (the London & North-Western railway being 4 m. distant at Afonwen junction). Pwllheli commands a good view of Merionethshire and of the Snowdon range, with the entire sweep of Cardigan Bay, Carreg yr ymbill (gimlet stone) at the mouth of the harbour, Abersoch and St Tudwal's Islands. Many hundred aeres of land have been reclaimed from the sea here and along the coast of the bay; there are costly embankments and good harbourage.. The coast

PYANEPSIA, or PYANOPSIA (from Gr. πύανος = κύαμος, bean, and few, to boil), an ancient festival in honour of | Apollo, held at Athens on the 7th of the month Pyanepsion (October). A hodge-podge of pulse was prepared and offered to Apollo (in his capacity as sun god and ripener of fruits) and the Horae, as the first-fruits of the autumn harvest. Another offering on this occasion was the eiresiōnē. This was a branch of olive or laurel, bound with purple or white wool, round which were hung various fruits of the season, pastries, and small jars of honey, oil and wine. It was intended as a thank-offering for blessings received, and at the same time as a prayer for similar blessings and protection against evil in future; hence, it was called a "suppliant " branch (iKernpia). The name is generally derived from elpos (wool) in reference to the woollen bands, but some connect it with epew (to speak), the ciresiōnē being regarded as the spokesman " of the suppliants. It was carried in procession by a boy whose parents were both alive to the temple of Apollo, where it was suspended on the gate. The doors of private houses were similarly adorned. The branch was allowed to hang for a year, when it was replaced by a new one, since by that time it was supposed to have lost its virtue. During the procession a chant (also called eireșiōnē) was sung, the text of which has been preserved in Plutarch (Theseus, 22):"Eiresiōnē carries figs and rich cakes;

Honey and oil in a jar to anoint the limbs; And pure wine, that she may be drunken and go to sleep." The semi-personification of eiresiōne will be noticed; and, according to Mannhardt, the branch" embodies the tree-spirit conceived as the spirit of vegetation in general, whose vivifying and fructifying influence is thus brought to bear upon the corn in particular." Aetiologists connected both offerings with the Cretan expedition of Theseus, who, when driven ashore at Delos, vowed a thank-offering to Apollo if he slew the Minotaur, which afterwards took the form of the eiresiōně and Pyanopsia. To explain the origin of the hodge-podge, it was said that his comrades on landing in Attica gathered up the scraps of their provisions that remained and prepared a meal from them.

See W. Mannhardt, Wald- und Feldkulte (1905), ii. 214, for an exhaustive account of the eiresione and its analogies; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (1900), i. 190; J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to Greek Religion (1908), ch. 3; L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States (1907), iv. 286.

PYAPON, a town and district of Lower Burma. The town is situated on a river of the same name, one of the numerous mouths of the Irrawaddy, about 12 m. from the sea. Pop. (1901), 5883. The district, which was only formed in 1903, lies within the delta of the Irrawaddy. It is a vast plain, intersected by tidal creeks and subject to inundation at high spring tides. The swampy jungle is being rapidly reclaimed for rice cultivation, which is the sole crop. Area, 2137 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 226,443, showing an increase of 63% in the decade.

PYAT, FELIX (1810-1889), French Socialist, was born at Vierzon (Cher) on the 4th of October 1810, the son of a Legitimist lawyer. Called to the bar in Paris in 1831, he threw his whole energies into journalism. The violent personalities of a pamphlet entitled Marie Joseph Chénier et le prince des critiques (1844), in reply to Jules Janin, brought him a six months' sojourn in La Pélagie, in the cell just quitted by Lamennais. He worked with other dramatists in a long series of plays, with an interval of six years on the National, until the revolution of 1848. George Sand, whom he had introduced in 1830 to the staff of the Figaro, now asked Ledru-Rollin to make him commissary-general of the Cher. After three months' tenure of this office he was returned by the department to the Constituent Assembly, where he voted with the Mountain, and brought forward the celebrated motion for the abolition of the presidential office. About this time he fought a duel with Proudhon, who