Food Cont'd.

L. 1877.2; Drzewina, A. 1908.2; Elmhirst, R. 1909.1; Herrick, C. J. 1902.1; Vion, R. 1877.1.

Feeding habits of various fishes. Mackerel. Bullen, G. E. 1912.1. North Sea fishes (Pleuronectes, et alii). Franz, V. 1910.9. - Gasterosteus. Anon. 430. Clupea. Swithinbank, H. & Bullen, G. E. Add. 1913.1. Gadus. Trachmann, C. O. Add. 1889.1.

Ability of the deep-sea fish with an extensible stomach (Chiasmodon niger) to swallow another fish larger than itself. Carte, A. 1866.1,.2; Goode, G. B. & Bean, T. H. 1896.1 (p. 292); Günther, A. C. 1866.8; Gill, T. N. Add. 1875.1.

Rumination in Scarus, alleged since the time of Aristotle, disbelieved. Houghton, W. 1867.1. Description in Scarus of lateral pharyngeal pouches presumed to serve for food storage. Sagemehl, M. 1885.1.

- Note on this. Breitenbach, W. 1885.1. An œsophageal structure presumed to permit rumination in Catla buchanani is described by Hyrtl, C. J. 1864.2.

See also Voracious habits of various predatory fishes under Predatory fishes.

Food of fossil fishes

Crustacea in abdominal cavities of fossil fishes. Deslongchamps, J. A. 1866.1. Fossil fishes with ingested Saurian remains. Eastman, C. R. 1911.2.

Kinds of food

Chub picking flies from cattle. Moodie, R. L. 1909.1.

Fishes picking mites from skin of men who lie immersed in the stream for that purpose. Anon. 235.

Fishes eating. Crustacea. Forbes, S. A. 1878.7. Oysters. Deyrolle-Guillou, Add. 1910.1; Pearson, J. Add. 1913.1. Medusa. Eisig, H. Add. 1884.1. Insects. Hewitt, C. G. Add. 1913.1. Eel feeding on mouse. Banister, J. D. 1843.1. on pufferfish. Putnam, F. W. 1872.3; -on eggs of Limulus. Warwell, H. C. 1897.1. on vole. Anon. 434. Cod feeding on whelks. Elmhirst, R. 1909.1. -on squid. Osborn, H. L. 1881.1. on whitings. Trachmann, C. O. Add. 1889.1.

Different kinds of molluscs in stomach contents of haddock. Clapp, W. F. 1912.1. A Holothurian (Synapta) in stomach of flat-fish. Peach, C. W. 1867.2.

Shad feeding on shrimp. Huyler, A. J. 1876.1.

Bream eating butterflies. L. Add. 1914.1.

Distant, W.

An excellent paper. The food of certain minnows" by C. M. Breder, Jr. & D. R. Crawford has recently appeared in Zoologica: Sci. Contribs. N. Y. Zool. Soc. 1922, vol. 2, no. 14, pp. 287-327. figs.

For fishes feeding on mosquito larvæ, see Malaria, under Diseases of man.

Plankton as food, i. e., the role of the minute surface forms of animal and plant

life such as protozoa, entomostraca, etc., in the alimentation of fishes.

Food, mainly planktonic, of fresh-water fishes. Arnold, J. P. 1902.2; Baird, W. 1857.1; Forbes, S. A. 1880.1,.3, 1883.2, 1888.1,.2, Add. 1914.1; Guerne, J. 1896.1; Leidy, J. 1881.1; Saunders, J. T. 1913.1; Smith, S. I. 1874.2; Steuer, A. 1901.1; ★Zacharias, E. O. 1892.1, 1893.4-1896.1, 1898.2, 1901.1, 1902.1,.3, 1909.1.

Diatoms eaten by fishes. Curtis, G. H. 1901.1,.2; Tokuhisa, M. 1908.1; Zacharias, E. O. 1902.2.

For the utilization of the natural plankton as food for cultivated young pond fishes, by making conditions favorable for its increase, see Natural food under Pisciculture.

Plankton (chiefly), as the source of food of marine fishes. ★Brooks, W. K. 1893.3; Day, F. 1882.5; Franke, J. 1906.1; Fulton, T. W. 1889.1; Hofer, B. 1896.1; McIntosh, W. C. 1887.2; Möbius, K. A. 1881.1, 1882.1; Peck, J. I. 1896.1; Ryder, J. A. 1882.10, Add. 1884.2; Sauvage, H. E. 1888.5; Steuer, A. 1905.1,.2; Sicard, A. 1877.1; Verrill, A. E. 1871.2; ★Wright, R. R. 1907.1; Dunn, M. Add. 1885.1.

Fresh-water plankton in the stomach of a Peruvian Characin, Lebiasina. Ehrenberg, C. G. 1848.1.

FOOD OF VARIOUS FISHES

Food of Ganoids

Food of the dogfish, Amia calra. Dean, B. 1899.4.

The natural food of the young gar-pike (Lepidosteus) consists of mosquito larra. Mark, E. L. 1890.1.

Food of the sturgeon, Acipenser. ★Behning, A. L. 1912.1; Prince, E. E. 1899.1; Tenney, S. 1877.1; Tichij, M. 1912.2.

Food of Plagiostomes

Basking shark (Cetorhinus) and whale shark (Rhincodon) feed on plankton sifted by their branchial appendages. Cetorhinus. Baird, S. F. 1873.13; Day. F. 1885.1; Pengelly, W. 1891.1; Hadfield, H. Add. 1885.1. Rhincodon. Gudger, E. W. 1915.1; Kampen, P. N. 1908.1.

Eagle-ray (Etobatis) crushes shells of clams with its teeth. Coles, R. J. 1910.1; Gudger, E. W. 1914.1.

Spines of fifty sting-rays, which it had eaten, removed from throat of a hammerhead shark. Gudger, E. W. 1907.1.

Food of Mustelus. Atwood, N. E. 1864.3. Skate feeding on lobster. Halkett, A. 1910.1. -on sand-eels, whelks, and cuttlefish. Wilcocks, J. C. Add. 1886.1.

Food of Chimæra. Scott, T. 1911.2. For human remains in stomachs of maneating sharks, see under Predatory fishes. Food of Teleosts

Sub-order Acanthopterygii Food of Cyclopterus. Apstein, C. 1910.1. Halibut. Bean, B. A. 1889.9; ★Scott, T. (1000 stomachs examined) 1911.2.

Mackerel. Bullen, G. E. 1908.1; Dunn, M. 1885.1, 1893.1; Kishinouye, K. 1895.1. - Etheostominæ. Forbes, S. A. 1880.2. - Lucioperca. Gruber, A. 1893.1; - Echeneis. HartNehring, A. 1904.3. ing, P. 1871.1. Bass, small-mouth

black. Worth, S. G. Add. 1911.1. - Sole. Collinson, P. Pre-Linn. 1746.1.

Sub-order Anacanthini

Food of the cod. Clark-Kennedy, A. Cornish, T. 1885.3; 1866.1; Laughrin,

W. 1862.1: Nordgaard, O. 1901.1; Saxby, H. L. 1865.1; Sharp, B. 1901.1; Brook, G. Add. 1886.1, 1887.1.

Food of Haddock. Brook, G. 1885.6. Whiting. Gosden, F. 1880.1. Gadida. Kendall, W. C. 1898.1. Phycis. Scott, T. 1911.2.

1912.1.

Southwell, T. Add. 1913.2.

Arctic seas.

- Ceylon seas.

Europe. Food of fishes of North and Irish seas around the British Isles. Carr, A. M. 1909.2; ★Johnstone, J. 1906.1; Ray, R. 1914.1; Scott, A. 1896.1, 1907.2; Scott, T. 1902.2, 1903.1, 1911.2; Smith, W. R. 1891.1, 1892.1; Todd, R. A. 1903.1,.2.

Food of North European fishes, chiefly of Baltic Sea and of Germany. Dröscher, W. 1907.2; Levander, K. M. 1899.1, 1901.3, 1909.1; Möbius, K. A. 1875.2; Pancritius, P. 1887.1; Rauschenplat, E. Schiemenz, P. 1905.2,.4,.6; ★Schultz, G. 1911.1; Olsson, P. Add. 1872.1; Schorler, B., Thallwitz, J. & Schiller, K. Add. 1906.1.

Food of the ling (Molva). Laughrin, W. 1862.1; Saxby, H. L. 1865.1; Wheeler, R. F. 1867.1.

Sub-order Apodes

Food of Eel. Archibald, Ch. F. 1899.1; Hintze, A. 1899.1; Schreitmüller, W. 1912.1; Trybom, F. 1899.1; Zacharias, E. O. (Larval eels) 1905.5.

Sub-order Malacopterygii

Food of the herring (Clupea harengus). Baird. S. F. 1871.18; Calderwood, W. L. & Brook, G. 1885.1; Day, F. 1882.6; Dunn, M. 1885.1; Möbius, K. A. 1873.2, 1878.3,.4; Nordgaard, O. 1907.1; Pearcey, F. G. 1884.1; Scott, T. 1907.1; Sim, G. 1883.2; Stark, John. 1840.1; Toni, G. B. 1908.1; Calderwood, W. L. Add. 1895.1; Hadfield, H. Add. 1885.1. Food of Sardine (immature Pilchard). Cépède, C. 1907.3,.4, 1910.1,.2,.3; Pouchet G. & Guerne, J. 1887.1; Roché, G. 1893.3; Sauvage, H. E. 1886.1; Guerne, J. Add. 1887.1.

Food of Pilchard. Dunn, M. 1885.1; Swithinbank, H. & Bullen, G. E. Add.

1913.1.

Food of Shad. Baird, S. F. 1874.8; Barbieri, C. 1908.1; Barfurth, D. 1874.1, 1876.1; Dröscher, W. 1898.1; Leidy, J. 1862.1, 1868.3; Mordecai, E. R. 1882.1; Weber, M. C. 1876.1.

Food of Coregonus (Vendace or Whitefish). Baird, W. 1857.1; Forbes, S. A. 1882.2,.3,.4, 1883.1, Add. 1882.1; Lebedintsev, A. A. 1908.3; Stark, John. 1837.1, 1840.1.

Menhaden. Peck, J. I. 1894.1.
Anchovy. Weber, M. C. 1886.3.

Sub-order Ostariophysi

Food of the carp. Cronheim, W. 1911.1; Fritsch, A. J. & Vávra, V. 1894.1; Gurney, J. H. 1860.1; Knauthe, K. 1896.4, 1899.2; McGovern, H. D. 1882.1, 1883.1; Nawratil, J. 1880.1; ★Supino, F. 1911.1, .2; Anon. 371.

For papers on the food of salmon and trout, the question of feeding in freshwater, etc., see under Salmonida.

Various papers on the food of the fishes of Spain. Camps y de Olzinellas, C. 1906.1. France. Gouriet, P. 1894.2; Arnoux, E. Add. 1889.2. Italy. Guccini, L. 1904.1. Volga River, Russia. Lavrov, S. 1909.1. Switzerland. Schoch, G. 1890.4.

United States. Food of fresh-water fishes of Mississippi valley. Forbes, S. A. 1878.5, 1889.1, Add. 1888.1. Michigan. Hankinson, T. L. 1908.1. Kern River, Cal. (trouts). Juday, C. 1906.1. Twin Lakes, Colo. Juday, C. 1907.2. Wisconsin. Marshall, W. & Gilbert, N. C. 1905.1; Pearse, A. S. 1915.1. · Nebraska. Ward, H. B. 1898.1. Lakes of the Sierras. Ward, H. B. 1903.1.

FOREIGN BODIES (EMBEDDED IN THE TISSUES OF FISHES).

Numerous instances are on record of pipefishes, sand-eels, the remains of crabs, skeletons of fishes, hooks, knives and other foreign objects found embedded in the liver, mesenteric folds, and muscles of fishes.

Various records. Atwood, N. E. 1868.1; Barrett, W. H. 1885.1; Williamson, H. C. 1911.2.

For an article containing reprints of all original records (20 in all), see E. W. Gudger in Natural History (Journ. Amer. Mus.) 1922, vol. 22, 452-457. 6 figs.

FORM OF FISHES

See also Adaptations.

Works of a general nature on form and hydrostatic stability. Houssay, F. 1900.1, 1912.2.

Proposed terminology for the various body shapes or forms of fishes. Gill, T. N. 1885.1. Displacements and area-curves of fish. Parsons, H. B. 1888.1.

Paleozoic fishes of anguilliform, compressiform, macruriform, depressiform and fusiform types. Abel, O. 1905.1, 1907.1.

Sagittiform adaptation of nectonic fishes. Schlesinger, G. 1909.1.

Form - Cont'd.

Embryological development of the external form or symmetry, causes, mechanical considerations, etc. His, W. 1894.3; Kopsch, F. 1898.1, 1898.3; Leuckart, C. G. 1850.1; Masterman, A. T. 1899.1; Rauber, A. 1879.1; Ryder, J. A. 1879.1; ★Keibel, F. Add. 1902.1.

For the development of the asymmetry of flat-fishes, see under Pleuronectidæ.

Miscellaneous papers on the form or shape of fishes. Dean, B. 1895.4; Houssay, F. 1905.1-1912.2, Add. 1911.1, 1914.1; Knauer, F. K. 1880.1; Mazza, F. 1893.1; Nikolskii, A. M. 1891.1; Osburn, R. C. 1913.3; Tenney, S. 1877.2; Walter, E. 1911.1; Thilo, O. Add. 1898.1.

GASTROLITHS (STOMACH STONES) For chemical concretions in the alimentary tract, see Calculi under Pathology.

Stones or pebbles (enteroliths) found in the stomachs of cod, pike, turbot, etc., presumably aiding in the trituration of food. Baird, S. F. 1872.24; Bree, W. T. 1830.1; Decker, W. 1896.1; Hoernes, R. 1904.1; Moodie, R. L. 1912.1; Wickes, W. H. 1908.1.

Possibility that pebbles in certain geological formations have been transported by fishes. Vaillant, L. L. 1892.4.

GENERAL WORKS ON NATURAL HISTORY

Comprising Compendia, Dictionaries, Encyclopedias, Manuals, Text-books, etc., with especial reference to the natural history of fishes.

For works of a general or comprehensive nature relating specifically to definite organs, systems, genera or higher groups, see under the specific headings, such as Anatomy, Angling, Embryology, Fisheries, Physiology, and other such major groupings.

For a list of catalogues of works on natural history, see Part IV of this work on "General Bibliographies."

For the history and development of the natural sciences, see Historical matter.

For general works of a precise nature relating to the science of ichthyology, see Ichthyology.

DICTIONARIES AND LEXICONS

Chiefly "Handwörterbücher der Zoologie." Brüning, C. 1911.4; Frenzel, J. 1897.1; Jourdan, A. J. 1834.1; Knauer, F. K. 1887.1; Nemnich, P. A. 1793.1; ★Ziegler, H. E. 1909.1; Baikie, E. S. Add. 1878.1.

GENERAL NATURAL HISTORIES

Important Treatises

Text in Dutch.

1862.1;
W. 1854.1.

Burgersdijk, L. A. Houttuyn, M. 1761.1; Vrolik,

Text in English. Brookes, R. 1763.1, 1773.1, 1790.1; Buffon, G. L. 1831.1, 1860.1; Cuvier, G. L. 1834.1,.2, 1840.1; Goode, G. B. & others 1887.1; ★Harmer, S. F. 1904.1; Hill, J. 1771.1; Kingsley, J. S. 1885.1; Lamarck, J. B. 1914.1; ★Lankester, E. R. 1900.1; Lydekker, R.

1894.1, 1903.1; Lydekker, R., Johnston, H. & others 1910.1; Pycraft, W. 1910.1; Shaw, G. 1800.1; Shaw, G. & Nodder, F. P. 1790.1; Swainson, W. 1820.1, 1838.1; Turton, W. 1802.1; Fleming, J. Add. 1822.1.

Text in French. Beaurieu, G. G. 1770.1; Beudant, F. S., Edwards, H. M. & Jussieu, A. L. 1867.1; Bomare, J. C. 1764.1; Bory de Saint-Vincent, J. B. 1822.1; Buc'Hoz, P. J. 1771.2; Buffon, G. L. 1798.1-1834.1; Chenu, J. C. 1874.1; Chevrolat, L. A. 1839.1; Cuvier, G. F. 1804.1; Cuvier, G. L. 1817.1, 1829.1, 1836.1, 1844.1; Knorr, G. W. 1766.1; Lacépède, B. G. 1844.1; La ChenayeDesbois, F. A. 1759.1; Lamarck, J. B. 1809.1; Orbigny, A. C. 1839.1; ★Perrier, J. O. E. 1903.1; Sonnini de Manoncourt, C. N. 1799.1; Valmont de Bomare, J. C. 1765.1; Virey, J. J. 1835.1; Anon. 662. Text in German. Borowski, G. H. 1784.1; Brehm, A. E. 1863.1, 1876.1, 1892.1, 1914.1; Bronn, H. G. 1859.1, 1874.1; Cuvier, G. L. 1831.1, 1846.1; Kaup, J. J. 1835.1; Lenz, H. O. 1838.11878.1; Leunis, J. 1844.1-1883.1; Martin, P. L. 1876.1; Martini, F. H. 1774.1; Oken, L. 1816.1, 1833.1; Suckow, G. A. 1797.1; Voigt, F. S. Add. 1831.1.

Text in Spanish. Brehm, A. E. 1882.1; Chao, E. 1852.1.

Lesser Works on Natural History Text in English. Baird, S. F. 1852.1; Brown, T. 1832.1; Cuvier, G. F. 1840.1; Donovan, E. 1823.1; Duncan, F. M. 1913.1; Edwards, G. 1758.1; Goldsmith, O. 1774.1-1858.1; Holloway, W. & Branch, J. 1804.1; Jenyns, L. 1846.1; Jordan, D. S. 1876.2-1899.2; Jordan, D. S. & Van Vleck, B. H. 1874.1; Lydekker, R. 1912.1; Lydekker, R. & others 1897.1; Mayo, B. 1818.1; Pluche, N. A. 1785.1; Shufeldt, R. W. 1897.3; Smith, T. 1806.1; Stark, John 1828.1; Wood, J. G. 1861.1; Wood, William 1807.1; Anon. 187, 345, 374; Forbes, E. Add. 1859.1; Ruschenberger, W. S. Add. 1856.1; Strong, A. B. Add. 1851.1.

Text in French. Alléon, D. 1765.1; Bertrand, J. E. 1779.1; Boitard, M. P. 1827.1; Cuvier, G. L. 1798.1; Pluche, N. A. 1763.1; Rafinesque-Schmaltz, C. 1815.1; Raymond, G. M. 1828.1; Virey, J. J. 1822.1.

Text in German. Bertuch, F. J. 1806.1; Hesse, R. & Doflein, F. 1910.1; Müller, J. T. 1780.1; Ramisch, F. H. 1835.1; Strack, -. 1819.1; Vogt, C. C. 1851.1; Wiedemann, C. R. 1800.1; Wilhelm, G. T. 1817.1; Wilmsem, F. P. 1831.1; Anon. 390.

Pre-Linnæan Works

Including natural histories, encyclopadias and early general works containing references to fishes.

Most of these works appeared in several editions and in various languages. AdDamiri, I. K. 1372.1; Andrew, L. 1510.1;

Aristotle, 1476.1;

Bartholomæus Anglicus. 1470.1; Birckerodius,T. B. 1694.1; Brisson, M. J. 1754.1; Burton, R. 1678.1; Candidus, D. P. 1460.1; Cerutus, B. 1622.1; Coetlegon, D. 1745.1, 1746.1; Cube, J. 1485.1; Cupani, F. 1713.1; Edwards, G. 1743.1; Franciscus. E. 1668.1; ★Gesner, C. 1558.1, 1575.1, 1619.1; Gilles, P. 1535.1; Hill, J. 1748.1; Hildegarde de Pinguia 1533.1; Hövel, H. 1601.1; Johnson, T. 1595.1; ★Jonston, J. 1632.1; Konrad of Megenburg, 1475.1; Knorr, G. W. 1754.1; Kräutermann. V. 1730.1; Lonicer, A. 1551.1; Marsigli, L. F. 1725.1; Martyn, B. 1735.1; Münster, S. 1543.1; Muralt, J. 1709.1,.2; Neckham, A. 1180.1; Nieremberg, J. E. 1635.1; Nylant, P. & Hextor, J. 1678.1; Petiver, J. 1702.1; Pliny, C. 1469.1; Pluche, N. 1732.1; Raimondi, E. 1610.1; Schnurr, B. 1654.1; 1689.1; Vincent, L. Bellovacensis 1473.1; Watson, F. 1754.1; ★Worm, O. 1655.1; Zanardus, M. 1619.1; Anon. 731, 732, 733, 754, 755, 774.

Reisch, G. 1496.1; Szent-Iványi, M. 1715.1; Vincentius

POPULAR WORKS

Including anecdotes, marvels of fish life, narratives, tales of the sea, etc.

For legends and fables of fish life, see Mythology and symbolism.

Text in Dutch. Brussel, T. 1798.1; Hauwaert, P. 1901.1, 1901.2; Redeke, H. C. 1911.2; Richter, J. G. 1768.1, 1780.1; Anon. 319.

Text in English. Abbott, C. C. 1888.1; Adams, A., Baikie, W. B. & Barron, C. 1854.1; Adams, W. H. 1870.1; Agassiz, J. L. 1847.1; Arnold, A. & Samuel, E. A. 1868.1; Beavan, A. H. 1905.1, 1908.1; Bigland, J. 1828.1-1865.1; Boyd, J. P. 1888.1; Brown, T. 1835.1; Buckland, F. T. 1857.1. 1875.1, 1876.1, 1882.1; Bullen, F. T. 1899.1-1904.2; Bushnan, J. S. 1840.1; Damon, Clarke, S. C. 1892.1; W. E. 1877.1, 1888.1; Duncan, F. M. 1913.2,.3; Duncan, F. M. & Duncan, L. EmerT. 1913.1; Elmhirst, R. 1913.2; ton, J. H. 1880.1; Esdaile, D. 1865.1; Furneaux, W. 1896.1; Gosse, P. H. 1849.1-1854.1; Hamilton, E. 1890.1; Harper, J. 1858.1; Holder, C. F. 1903.1, 1906.1, 1908.1, 1910.1,.3, 1913.1, Add. 1885.1-1912.1; Holder, C. F. & Jordan, D. S. 1909.1; Jesse, E. 1832.1; Carthy, E. 1900.1; Morris, F. O. 1860.1; Northrop, H. D. 1901.1; Ogilvie, G. 1858.1; Petersen, C. G. 1900.1; Prouty, L. 1883.1; Pycraft, W. 1901.1; nolds, S. 1911.1; Simeon, C. 1860.1, 1863.1; Thompson, J. A. 1914.1; Trimmer, M. 1830.1; Walcott, J. 1788.1; Walcott, S. 1795.1; Wood. J. G. 1857.1; Wraxall, F. C. 1860.1; Baskett, J. N. Add. 1899.1; Boulenger, G. A. & Boulenger, C. L. Add. 1914.1; Cowan, F. Add. 1894.1; Davies, E. W. Add. 1887.1; Figuier, L. Add. 1869.1; Giberne, A. Add. 1902.1; Perry, W. A., Mosher, A. A. & others. Add. 1892.1.

Mc

Rey

Text in French. Blocquel, S. 1826.1; Buc'Hoz, P. J. 1769.1; Chailland, 1769.1; Dralet,-. 1821.1; Figuier, G. L. 1868.1, 1876.1; Haüy, R. J. 1787.1; Jannettaz, P. M. 1869.1; Moquin-Tandon, C. H. 1865.1, 1866.1; Oudart, P. L. 1825.1; Pérez, C. C. 1901.1; Ray, P. A. 1788.1, 1804.1.

Text in German. Buhle, C. A. 1812.1; Hartwig, G. L. 1857.1; Hentschel, E. 1909.1; Krüger, J. G. 1759.1; Leonhardt, E. E. 1913.1; Leuckart, F. S. 1832.1; Marshall, W. A. 1898.1; Plehn, M. 1906.2; Rauther, M. 1907.2..3; Schreiber, 1913.1; Anon. 633; Giebel, C. G. Add. 1860.1.

Text in Italian. Bianconi, C. G. 1848.1; Giglioli, E. H. & Issel, R. 1884.1; Doni di Nettuno. ★Cavanno, G. Add. 1914.1.

Baird, S. F. 1851.1;

Text in English. Boas, J. E. 1896.1; Hertwig, C. W. 1913.1; Hoeven, J. 1856.1; Kingsley, J. S. 1900.1; Lankester, E. R. 1889.2,.3, 1911.2; Marshall, A. M. & Hurst, C. H. 1887.1; Morgan, C. L. 1887.1; Nicholson, H. A. 1870.1, 1871.1; Packard, A. S. Jr. 1880.1; Parker, T. J. & Haswell, W. A. 1897.1; Sedgwick, A. 1885.1, 1898.1; Shipley, A. E. & Macbride, E. W. 1901.1; Wells, Thomson, J. A. 1892.1, 1910.1; H. 1894.1: Wells, H. G. & Davies, A. M. 1913.1; Weyser, A. W. 1904.1; Parker, T. J. & Parker, W. N. Add. 1900.1.

Text in French. Delage, M. Y. & Hérouard, E. 1898.1; Edwards, H. M. 1835.1; Pouchet, F. A. 1832.1, 1841.1.

Text in German. Boas, J. E. 1894.1; Brandt, A. T. 1911.1; Brühl, C. B. 1877.1; Carus, J. V. & Gerstaecker, C. E. 1863.1; Goette, A. 1902.1; Goldfuss, G. A. 1820.1; HertHertwig, C. W. 1891.1, 1910.1; wig, W. A. 1906.1; Hilzheimer, M. & Haempel, O. 1913.1; Hufeland, -. 1798.1; Kner, R. 1849.1; Kuhl, H. 1820.1; Nusbaum, J., Karsten, G. & Weber, M. 1911.1; Pagenstecher, H. A. 1875.1; Thienemann, F. A. 1828.1; Treviranus, G. R. 1802.1; Voigt, F. S. 1835.1.

Text in Italian. Bassani, F. 1885.1; Doria, G., Ferrari, S. M. & Lessona, M. 1861.1-1869.1; Ranzani, C. 1819.1.

Medical Zoölogies. Brandt, J. F. & Ratzeburg, J. T. 1829.1; Czenpinski, P. 1778.1; Szirmay, A. I. Add. 1840.1.

GROWTH, AGE, AND SIZE

References to the development and growth of individual forms will be found under the various families and genera, under the heading Natural History.

Papers relating to metamorphosis and growth will be found under such families as Anguillidæ, Pleuronectidæ, and Salmonidæ.

For related subjects, see under such topics as Embryology, Form, etc.

For the relations between age and reproduction, see Sexual maturity under Reproduction.

Mode of growth. Henneguy, L. F. 1887.1; Packard, A. S. Jr., 1875.1. Distribution of form-building capacities in animal bodies. Przibram, H. 1910.1.-Lengthening process. His, W. Add. 1891.1. Relation of weight to length in Mustelus. Hecht, S. 1913.1.

Relative growth of organs and parts, Mustelus. Kearney, H. L. Add. 1914.1.

Relative dimensions of adults and young of Alopias vulpes. Vaillant, L. L. 1886.2.

Correlations of weight and length in the weakfish, Cynoscion regalis. Crozier, W. J. & Hecht, S. Add. 1914.1.

Miscellaneous and unimportant papers, notices, popular accounts, etc., on age and growth in fishes, age-determination from the point of view of the fish-culturist, etc. Text in English. Aflalo, F. G. 1902.4; Baird, S. F. 1876.21; Meek, S. E. 1900.3. Norwegian. Dahl, K. 1911.2, 1912.1; Dahl, K., Damas, D. & Sund, O. 1909.1; Grieg, J. A. 1908.1; Nordgaard, O. 1901.1. Russian. Emeljanenko, P. E. 1909.1; Grimm, O. 1901.2,.3, 1904.2; Heide, E. J. 1912.1; Ostroumov, A. A. 1910.1-1913.1. - Finnish. Ericcson, B. 1905.1. Swedish. Hederström, H. 1759.1; Mäklin, F. W. 1864.1, 1865.1; Nordqvist, O. F.1907.2, 1909.2; Petersen, C. G. 1892.1. Dutch. Hoek, P. P. 1912.3; Tesch, J. J. 1910.1, 1913.1. Italian. Mazzarelli, G. F. 1904.1; Supino, F. 1910.1. · Danish. Otterstrøm, A. N. 1906.1. - Japanese. Watanabe, M. 1913.1.

Text in German. Apstein, C. 1900.1, 1909.1; Bartels, F. 1910.2; Braun, M. G. 1893.1; Cronheim, W. 1908.1; Lücke, Fr. 1911.1; Milewski, A. 1912.4; Popta, C. M. 1907.2; Reeker, H. 1909.1; Reuss, H. 1908.1,.2; Stieda, L. 1871.2.

METHODS IN DETERMINATION
of age and growth

For a short historical résumé in English of the development in Europe of all the methods in the determination of growth and age, with the chief literature, see ★Dahl, K. 1909.1.

Older methods

Professor Sars attempted to begin with the newly hatched fry of the cod, measuring their growth and observing it year after year. Sars, G. O. 1865.1 et seq.

Similar observations on herring were made by Meyer, H. A. 1878.1,.2.

RATE OF GROWTH

A great stimulus to studies on age and growth was given by the work of Petersen. His method consisted chiefly in the mensuration of large numbers of immature fishes of all sizes to determine the limits of the various series or generations -the median point (or average) between the extreme limits of the series being taken as the mean of a group-series or annual size-unit or 'year-class." By a study of these group-series, it was expected to determine the full growthrate of a given species. Experience, however, has shown that, as a rule, only the first 2-3 year classes are recognizable.

Original statement of this method. Petersen, C. G. 1891.2, 1895.2.

Following this method, with slight modifications, observations chiefly on the rate of growth have been made as follows. Flounder, plaice, dab, sole, turbot, whiting, poor cod, and pilchard. Cunningham, J. T. 1891.9,.11, 1892.2,.3. Plaice. Dannevig H. C. 1899.1; Johnstone, J. 1908.2, 1910.4, 1912.4, Add. 1912.1, 1914.2; Kyle, H. M. 1905.2, 1907.1. Gurnard. Fulton T. W. 1899.1. Cod, haddock, whiting and Norway pout. Fulton, T. W. 1901.3. Plaice, dab, whiting and haddock. - HerFulton, T. W. 1902.3, 1904.5. ring. Masterman, A. T. 1895.3. -Cyclopterus, Cottus, Agonus and Liparis. Tosh, J. R. 1894.1.

Unclassified. Fulton, T. W. 1893.2; Williamson, H. C. 1893.1. Description of a fish-measuring board. Riddell, W. 1914.1, 1915.1.

Recent methods in age determination

In 1899 Reibisch showed that the otoliths of plaice exhibit a periodic growth corresponding to summer and winter and are thus available for age determination. Reibisch, J. 1899.1.

About the same time, Hoffbauer demonstrated that the annual rings in the scales of the carp provided an indication of the age. Hoffbauer, C. 1898.1 et seq.

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Since then numerous parts have proven available. The choice of the organ for age determination may now be considered as being a question of an entirely practical kind, a question to be answered for each species. We employ the organ which most easily and cheaply can be procured. Some investigators have used the otoliths. Others have employed certain bones, as gill-covers, scapulæ, vertebræ, or neural processes. Others again have preferred to use the scales." Dahl.

A comprehensive dissertation in German on otolith structure with regard to age determination is ★Fryd, C. 1901.1.

For a comprehensive treatise in English on age determination as based on scale studies, see Taylor, H. F. 1916.1.

For an excellent popular paper on the relation of scale structure to growth in the Atlantic salmon, the meaning of the " spawning mark on the scales, etc., see ★Hutton, J. A. Add. 1909.1.