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of the Church, particularly in Berlin. Attempts more or less | founded in 1701, through the efforts of the Rev. Thomas Bray, a successful have been made from the first to exclude clergymen missionary in Maryland. These churches scattered throughout and professors identified with it from the pulpits and chairs of the different colonies up to the American War of Independence Berlin and elsewhere, though membership in it involves no legal were missions of the Church of England. They were under the disqualification for either. One of the objects of the association jurisdiction of the Bishop of London, there being no bishop in was to some extent obtained by their organization of the Prussian America. The Bishop of London superintended these distant Church when Dr Falk was cultus minister, on the basis of paro- parishes by means of commissaries. Many of the clergy came chial and synodal representation, which came into full operation from England; and when young men in America desired to be in 1879. But the election for the general synod turned out very ordained, it was necessary for them to go to England for this unfavourable to the liberal party, and the large orthodox majority purpose. The Church during the colonial period was incomplete endeavoured to use their power against the principles and the in organization, and without the power of expansion. It was members of the association. In 1882 the position of the associa- confined principally to the more settled parts of the country, tion was rendered still more difficult by the agitation in Berlin though it had extended itself into all the colonies. During this of Dr Kalthoff and other members of it in favour of a "people's period a few educational institutions were founded: the College church" on purely dissenting and extremely advanced theologi- of William and Mary in 1693, in Virginia; the Public Academy cal principles. This difficulty has continued, and the extreme of Philadelphia, in 1749, now the university of Pennsylvania; rationalist position taken up by some leaders has alienated the and King's College, in 1754, in New York, now Columbia Universympathy not only of the obscurantists but of those who were sity. The clergy also frequently taught in parochial schools, prepared to go some distance in the direction of a liberal theology. and trained boys and girls in their homes. There are now about 25,000 members in the 20 branches of the Verein.

When the war broke out and independence was declared, a number of the clergy went back to England, leaving their See D. Schenkel, Der deutsche Protestantenverein und seine Bedeu- parishes vacant, but many, especially in the southern states, tung für die Gegenwart (Wiesbaden, 1868, 2nd ed. 1871); Der deutsche remained and upheld the American cause. Protestantenverein in seinen Statuten und den Thesen seiner HauptA large majority versammlungen 1865-1882 (Berlin, 1883); P. Wehlhorn in Herzog- of the laymen were patriots. Two-thirds of the signers of the Hauck's Realencyk. für prot. Theol. u. Kirche; H. Weinel," Religious | Declaration of Independence were Episcopalians. The churches, Life and Thought in Germany To-day," Hibbert Journal (July 1909). having their support largely withdrawn by the Venerable Society, PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States, became very weak. In Massachusetts during the war only two a part of the Anglican Communion, organized after the War of churches were kept open. Independence by the scattered parishes of the Church of England which survived the war. It inherits from the Church of England, with which it is in communion, its liturgy, polity and spiritual traditions, though it has entire independence in legislation. While the clergy of both Churches are cordially received in their respective countries, there is no formal connexion between them except in fellowship and in advisory council as at the Lambeth Conference. The Church in the United States is therefore an independent national Church which has adapted itself to the conditions of American life.

With many likenesses, the Protestant Episcopal Church is different from the Church of England in its organization and representative form of government. It has the three orders of bishops, priests and deacons, and uses an almost identical liturgy; but it is a democratic institution in which the laity have practically as much power as the clergy, and they are represented in all legislative bodies. The constitution of the Church follows in many particulars the constitution of the United States. As the separate states of the Union are made up of different townships, so the diocese is composed of separate parishes; and as the nation is a union of the states, so the Church is a union of the dioceses. The American plan of representative government is consistently adhered to. The Church in America is thus a part of the Catholic Church of Christ, with its roots deep in the past and yet a living body with a life of its own, standing for the truth of the Christian religion in the great Republic. It is now firmly established in every state and Territory of the United States, and in all the dependencies, with also vigorous missions in foreign lands.

Services of the Church of England were held by the chaplains of exploring expeditions in various parts of North America before a settlement was established: on Hudson Bay, History. in 1578, and on the shores of the Pacific with Drake in 1579; but the first permanent foothold of the Church was in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, when a colony was founded and a church built. This fact is recognized in the proposed preamble to the constitution, in which it is stated that this American Church was "first planted in Virginia in the year of Our Lord 1607, by representatives of the ancient Church of England." Parishes were later founded in Maryland in 1676; in Massachusetts in 1686; in New York about 1693; in Connecticut in 1706; and in the other colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries. The growth of these colonial churches was largely promoted by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts,

After the war it was very soon recognized that if the Church was to survive, there must be organization and co-operation among the fragments left. Rev. William White (1748-1836) of Philadelphia, who had been chaplain of the Continental Congress, was a leader in the plan of organization. Rev. Samuel Seabury (1729-1796) of Connecticut was also an important factor in continuing the life of the Church. He was elected bishop by the clergy of Connecticut, and after being refused in England, was consecrated bishop of Connecticut by the Scotch non-juror bishops in Aberdeen on the 14th of November 1784. Later, William White of Pennsylvania and Samuel Provoost (1742-1815) of New York were consecrated bishops in the chapel at Lambeth Palace on the 4th of February 1787, by the archbishops of Canterbury and York and others. Rev. James Madison (1749-1812) of Virginia was also consecrated bishop in England, on the 19th of September 1790. An important meeting or general convention of laymen, clergy and bishops was held in 1784, and another in 1789, for the purpose of consolidating and uniting the Church. Certain fundamental principles were adopted which were the basis of organization: that the Episcopal Church be independent of all foreign authority; that it have full and exclusive power to regulate the concerns of its own communion; that the doctrines be maintained as in the Church of England; that bishops, priests and deacons be required; that the canons and laws be made by a more representative body of clergy and laity conjointly. At the general convention of 1789 a constitution and canons were finally adopted, and the book of Common Prayer was set forth.

The Church thus being fully organized, it was prepared to develop and extend. There was a long period, however, when little was done save retain what had already been gained. Owing in a measure to the popular prejudice against anything that savoured of England, and to the difficulty of adapting the newly formed institution to the conditions of American life, the Church hardly held its own from 1789 to 1811. The general convention of 1811 was attended by only five clergymen and four laymen more than that of 1789. The Church in Virginia especially suffered a decline, but in the North it maintained itself. After 1811 a new spirit manifested itself in the consecration of three important men to the episcopate. John Henry Hobart, a man of great zeal and devotion, became bishop of New York in 1811; Alexander Viets Griswold (1766-1843), a man of piety and force, became bishop of the eastern diocese of New England in 1811; and Richard Channing Moore (1762-1841), a

strong preacher and vigorous personality, was consecrated bishop of Virginia in 1814. Both Hobart and Moore became interested in theological education; and their efforts to train clergymen resulted in the establishment of the General Theological Seminary in New York in 1819, and the Theological Seminary in Virginia, opened in Alexandria in 1824. The Churchman's Magazine was started. Another evidence of expansion was the consecration in 1819 of Philander Chase (1775-1852), who became pioneer bishop of the West, first in Ohio where he laid the foundations (1824) of the " Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Ohio," afterward called Kenyon College, at Gambier, and then in Illinois where he organized a church and founded Jubilee College. The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society was started in 1821. This centralized the mission work, and became the great agency in the growth and extension of the Church. Bishop Jackson Kemper (1789-1870) in the North-west, and Bishop James Hervey Otey (1800-1863) in the South-west, did important pioneer work.

The period between 1835 and 1865 was characterized by further expansion of the episcopate and the formation of new dioceses. Bishop William Ingraham Kip (1811-1893) went to the miners of California in 1853. The dioceses of Oregon and Iowa were founded in 1854; and Bishop Henry Benjamin Whipple (1822-1901) was sent to Minnesota in 1859. The Church found its way into Indiana, Texas, Arkansas, Florida, Nebraska and Colorado. In 1835 there were 763 clergymen; in 1850 the number had increased to 1558; and even in 1865 there were 2450. The number of communicants also grew from 1835, when there were 36,000; to 1850, when there were 80,000; and to 1865, when there were 150,000. During this period some beautiful church buildings were erected, notably Trinity church and Grace church, New York. The services were richer; stained glass was used; stalls for the clergy and choir were introduced, and the lectern was substituted for the old-time reading-desk. Other educational institutions were founded: Nashotah, Wisconsin, in 1842; Bexley Hall at Gambier in 1839; Racine College, at Racine, Wisconsin; and Griswold College in Iowa.

When the Civil War broke out in 1861 the Church in the South met and formed a separate organization called "The Protestant Episcopal Church in the Confederate States," but the Church in the North did not recognize the secession; at the meeting of the general convention in New York in 1862, the roll of the Southern dioceses was called, and though absent, they were still considered a part of the Church in the United States. This brotherliness was an important factor in bringing about a complete union between the Northern and Southern Churches after the Civil War; so the Church in the Confederate States had but a temporary existence.

Since the Civil War the Church has grown with the expansion of national life. It has become strong in great centres, and has reached out into every part of the United States and its dependencies, and has maintained missionary stations in foreign lands. There are bishops and missionary dioceses in Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippine Islands, Porto Rico and Cuba; two bishops in China and two in Japan; and bishops in Liberia, Haiti, and Brazil.

Institutions of learning, schools, colleges and theological semi: naries, have been founded. Prominent among the schools are St Paul's, at Concord, New Hampshire; St Mark's, at Southboro, Massachusetts; Groton School, at Groton, Massachusetts; St Mary's, at Garden City, Long Island; St Agnes's, at Albany, New York: St Mary's, at Burlington, New Jersey; the Cathedral School, at Washington D.C.; and St. George's School, at Newport, Rhode Island. In addition to the colleges already referred to, there should be included: Trinity College, at Hartford, Connecticut; St Stephen's, at Annandale, New York; the University of the South, at Sewance, Tennessee; and Hobart College, at Geneva, New York. The theological seminaries, besides the general seminary in New York and the Virginia Seminary, are: the Divinity School, in Philadelphia; the Berkeley Divinity School, at Middletown, Connecticut; the Seabury Divinity School, at Faribault, Minnesota; Western Theological Seminary, in Chicago; Nashotah House, at Nashotah, Wisconsin; Bexley Hall, Gambier, Ohio; the Church Divinity School of the Paci fic, San Mateo, California; and the Episcopal Theological School in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Cathedrals have been built or were in process of construction in Milwaukee; the Cathedral of All Saints, Albany; the Cathedral of 1910 in many cities. Among them are: All Saints Cathedral, the Incarnation, Garden City, Long Island, the Cathedral Church of St Luke, Portland, Maine; St John the Divine, New York; and also those in Dallas, Texas, Washington, D.C., Davenport, Iowa, and Cleveland, Ohio.

The institutional life of the Church is constantly increasing. Among the numerous organizations founded for distinct purposes are: the Woman's Auxiliary to the Board of Missions; the American Church Building Fund Commission; the American Church Missionary Society; the General Clergy Relief Fund; the Assyrian Mission hood of St Andrew; the Girls' Friendly Society; the Church Students' Committee; the American Church Institute for Negroes; the BrotherMissionary Association; the Church Laymen's Union; the Seabury Society of New York; the Church Mission to Deaf Mutes; the Conference of Church Workers among the Colored People; the Society Advancement of the Interests of Labor; the Church Temperance for the Increase of the Ministry; the Church Association for the Society; the Church Unity Society; the Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament; the Guild of the Holy Cross; the Guild of St Barnabas for Nurses; the Church Congress in the United States. In addition there are Sunday School commissions and institutes in almost every diocese. Among the religious orders may be mentioned the Society of Mission Priests of St John the Evangelist; the Order of the Holy Cross: the Community of St Mary; the Sisterhood of St Margaret; the All Saints Sisters of the Poor; the Sisterhood of St John Baptist; and others. There are also training schools for deaconesses, including the New York Training School for Deaconesses; and the Church Training and Deaconess House of the Diocese of Pennsylvania.

Govern

The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States is governed according to the constitutions and canons adopted in 1789, and from time to time amended by the General Convention, which meets every three years. The meat. General Convention consists of the House of Bishops, having as members all the bishops of the Church, and a House of Deputies, composed of four presbyters and four laymen elected by each diocese in union with the Convention; also one clerical and one lay deputy from each missionary district within the boundaries of the United States, and one clerical and one lay deputy chosen by the Convocation of the American Churches in Europe. The voting is by both houses acting separately and concurring. In the House of Deputies the vote is taken by orders, the clerical and lay deputies voting separately; and they must concur for a resolution to pass. This representative body legislates for the whole Church. Each diocese also has its own constitution and canons, by which it regulates its internal affairs, having also an annual diocesan convention, in which the clergy and laity are represented. A bishop is elected by the diocese, subject to confirmation by a majority of the bishops and standing committees of the different dioceses. Missionary bishops are elected by the House of Bishops and confirmed by the House of Deputies if the General Convention is in session; if not in session, by a majority of the standing committees. The presiding bishop of the Church was the senior bishop in order of consecration, until 1910, when an amendment to the constitution was adopted providing for his election by the General Convention. A special feature of the government of the Church is the power given to the laymen. In the parishes they elect their own clergyman; and they have votes in the diocesan convention and in the General Convention, and are thus an integral part of the legislative machinery of the Church.

The worship of the Church is conducted in accordance with the Book of Common Prayer, set forth in 1789, but changed from time to time as need has arisen. The preface states that "this Church is far from intending to depart from the Church of England in any essential part of doctrine, discipline or worship, or further than local circumstances require." This principle guided the Church in the early days, and continues in force. However, changes have been made in the direction of omission and addition. The Athanasian Creed is omitted, as well as all reference to the king and royal family. The Commination Service has been dropped. In the Te Deum, in place of " Thou didst not abhor the Virgin's womb," is substituted "Thou didst humble Thyself to be born of a Virgin." Many verbal

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changes have been made. "Our Father which art in Heaven" red; the jaws and palate are toothed. This extraordinary is changed to "Who art in Heaven"; "Them that trespass Batrachian has been found in a great number of different caves, is changed to "Those who trespass." The Ornaments Rubric but rather sporadically, and it is believed that its real home is and the Black Rubric are omitted. The Communion Office is in deeper subterranean waters, whence it is expelled at times more like the Scottish office, having the Oblation and Invocation. of floods. It is often kept in aquariums, where it may turn Instead of the Commandments may be said our Lord's summary almost black, and has bred in captivity. Proteus forms with of the law. Special prayers and thanksgiving have been added, Necturus (Menobranchus) the family Proteidae. The second to be used upon several occasions. A form of the consecration of genus, which is widely distributed in eastern North America, is a church has been introduced, as well as an office for the more generalized in its structure, having better developed limbs, institution of a minister and an office for the visitation of with four digits, and is adapted to live in the light. But the prisoners. The last revision of the American Prayer Book was two are closely allied, and Necturus gives us a very exact idea in 1892; gospels for the Festival of the Transfiguration and of what sort of a type Proteus must be derived from. for the early celebration of the Holy Communion on Christmas Day and Easter Day were added; and a greater flexibility in the use of the Prayer Book was permitted.

$17,509,085.

The statistics as reported by the General Convention of 1907 are as follows: the whole number of clergy, 5329; deacons ordained, 483; priests ordained, 471; candidates for holy orders, 469: postulants, 323 lay readers, 2464; baptisms, 197,203; persons confirmed, 158.931; communicants, 871,862; Sunday School officers and teachers, 47,871; pupils, 446,367: parishes and missions, 7615; church edifices, 7028; rectories, 2530; church hospitals, 72; orphan asylums, 57; homes, 84; academic institutions, 22; collegiate, 17; theological, 23; other institutions, 79; total contributions for all purposes, $52,257,519; episcopal fund, $3,499,838; hospitals and other institutions, AUTHORITIES.-J. S. M. Anderson, History of the Church of England in the Colonies (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1856); Leighton Coleman, The Church in America (New York, 1895); A. L. Cross, The Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies (New York, 1902): H. W. Foote, Annals of King's Chapel (2 vols., Boston, 1882-1887); George Hodges, Three Hundred Years of the Episcopal Church in America (Philadelphia, 1906); W. S. Perry, History of the American Episcopal Church, 1587-1883, with Monographs (2 vols., Boston, 1885); W. S. Perry, Historical Collections Relating to the Episcopal Colonial Church, covering Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Maryland and Delaware (4 vols., Hartford, 1870); S. D. McConnell, History of the American Episcopal Church (New York, 1890); D. D. Addison, The Episcopalians (New York, 1902); C. C. Tiffany, A History of the Protestant Episcopal Church (New York, 1905). (D. D. A.)

PROTEUS, in Greek mythology, a prophetic old man of the sea. According to Homer, his resting-place was the island of Pharos, near the mouth of the Nile; in Virgil his home is the island of Carpathus, between Crete and Rhodes. He knew all things past, present and future, but was loth to tell what he knew. Those who would consult him had first to surprise and bind him during his noonday slumber in a cave by the sea, where he was wont to pass the heat of the day surrounded by his seals. Even when caught he would try to escape by assuming all sorts of shapes: now he was a lion, now a serpent, a leopard, a boar, a tree, fire, water. But if his captor held him fast the god at last returned to his proper shape, gave the wished-for answer, and then plunged into the sea. He was subject to Poseidon, and acted as shepherd to his "flocks." In post-Homeric times the story ran that Proteus was the son of Poseidon and a king of Egypt, to whose court Helen was taken by Hermes after she had been carried off, Paris being accompanied to Troy by a phantom substituted for her. This is the story followed by Herodotus (ii. 112, 118), who got it from Egyptian priests, and by Euripides in the Helena. From his power of assuming whatever shape he pleased Proteus came to be regarded, especially by the Orphic mystics, as a symbol of the original matter from which the world was created. Rather he is typical of the ever-changing aspect of the sea (Homer, Odyssey, iv. 351; Virgil, Georgics, iv. 386).

In 1896 a Proteus-like Batrachian was discovered in Texas during the operation of boring an artesian well 188 ft. deep, when it was shot out with a number of remarkable and unknown Crustaceans. Typhlomolge rathbuni (see fig.), as this creature was called, agrees with Proteus in the shape of the head, in the absence of functional eyes, in the presence of external gills, and in the unpigmented skin. It differs in the very short body and the long slender limbs with four to five digits. It was first placed in the same family as Proteus, but the anatomical investigations of Ellen J. Emerson have led this author to believe that the real affinities are with the larval form of the lungless salamander Spelerpes, not with Necturus and Proteus.

Whilst Proteus has lungs in addition to the gills, Typhlomolge lacks the lungs, and with them the trachea and larnyx. It is therefore probable that Typhlomolge is a permanent larva derived from Spelerpes, whilst we are quite unable to assign any direct ancestor to Necturus.

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See P. Configliachi and M. Rusconi, Del Proteo anguino (Pavia, 1819), 4; J. de Bedriaga, Lurchfauna Europas (1897), ii. 28; E. Zeller, Über die Fortpflanzung des Proteus anguinus., Jahresb. ver. Nal. Württemb. (1889), p. 131; L. Steineger," New Genus and Species of Blind Cave Salamanders from North America," P.U.S. Nat. Mus. (1892), xv. 115; idem," New Genus and Species of Blind, Tailed Batrachians from the Subterranean Waters of Texas," op. cit. (1896). xviii. 619: Ellen J. Emerson, General Anatomy of Typhlomolge rathbuni," P. Boston Soc. N.H. (1905), xxxii. 43PROTHESIS (Gr. pódeσis, a setting forth, from πрoriéval, to set forward or before), in the liturgy of the Orthodox Eastern Church, the name given to the act of "setting forth" the oblation, i.e. the arranging of the bread on the paten, the signing of the cross (opayise) on the bread with the sacred spear, the mixing of the chalice, and the veiling of the paten and chalice (see F. E. Brightman, Liturgies Eastern and Western, 1896). The term is also used, architecturally, for the place in which this ceremony takes place, a chamber on the north side of the central apse in a Greek church, with a small table. During PROTEUS (Proteus anguinus), in zoology, a blind perenni- the reign of Justin II. (565-574) this chamber was located in an branchiate tailed Batrachian, inhabiting the subterranean apse, and another apse was added on the south side for the waters of the limestone caves to the east of the Adriatic from diaconicon (q.v.), so that from his time the Greek church was Carniola to Herzegovina. It was long supposed to be the sole triapsal. In the churches in central Syria the ritual was representative of the Batrachians in the cave fauna, but other apparently not the same, as both prothesis and diaconica are examples have been added in recent years. It is a small eel-like generally rectangular, and the former, according to De Vogué, animal, with minute limbs, the anterior of which are tridactyle, constituted a chamber for the deposit of offerings by the the posterior didactyle, with a strongly compressed tail, a faithful. Consequently it is sometimes placed on the south side, narrow head, with flat truncate snout, minute rudimentary if when so placed it was more accessible to the pilgrims. There eyes hidden under the skin, which is usually colourless, or rather is always a much wider doorway to the prothesis than to the flesh-coloured, with the short, plume-like external gills blood-diaconicon, and there are cases where a side doorway from the

central apse leads direct to the diaconicon, but never to the prothesis.

PROTISTA, a name invented by Ernst Haeckel (Generelle Morphologie der Organismen, 1866) to denote a group of organisms supposed to be intermediate between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. As knowledge advanced the precise limits of the group shifted, and Haeckel himself, in successive publications, placed different sets of organisms within it, at one time proposing to include all unicellular animals and plants, making it a third kingdom equivalent to the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Partly because the term represented an interpretation rather than an objective set of facts, the word Protista has not been generally accepted for use in classification, and, whilst recognizing that the limits of the animal and plant kingdoms are not sharply defined, modern systematists refrain from associating these doubtfully placed organisms simply because of the dubiety of their position. (See PROTOZOA.)

saying that it was wanting in charm. On one picture, the "Ialysus," he spent seven years; on another, the "Satyr," he worked continuously during the siege of Rhodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes (305-304 B.C.) notwithstanding that the garden in which he painted was in the middle of the enemy's camp. Demetrius, unsolicited, took measures for his safety; more than that, when told that the " Ialysus "just mentioned was in a part of the town exposed to assault, Demetrius changed his plan of operations. Ialysus was a local hero,the founder of the town of the same name in the island of Rhodes, and probably he was represented as a huntsman. This picture was still in Rhodes in the time of Cicero, but was afterwards removed to Rome, where it perished in the burning of the Temple of Peace. The picture painted during the siege of Rhodes consisted of a satyr leaning idly against a pillar on which was a figure of a partridge, so life-like that ordinary spectators saw nothing but it. Enraged on this account, the painter wiped out the partridge. The" Satyr " must PROTOCOL (Fr. protocole, Late Lat. protocollum, from Gr. have been one of his last works. He would then be about Tрros, first, and кoλλâv, to glue, i.e. originally the first sheet seventy years of age, and had enjoyed for about twenty years of a papyrus roll), in diplomacy, the name given to a variety of a reputation next only to that of Apelles, his friend and benewritten instruments. The protocollum was under the late Roman factor. Both were finished colourists so far as the frescoEmpire a volume of leaves, bound together with glue, in which painting of their day permitted, and both were laborious in the public acts were recorded, so as to guard against fraud or error practice of drawing, doubtless with the view to obtaining bold on the part of those responsible for preparing them; and in later effects of perspective as well as fineness of outline. It was an usage it came to be applied to the original drafts of such acts. illustration of this practice when Apelles, finding in the house of Thus, too, the word prothocollare was devised for the process Protogenes a large panel ready prepared for a picture, drew upon of drawing up public acts in authentic form (Du Cange, Glos-it with a brush a very fine line which he said would tell sufficiently sarium lat. s.v. Protocollum). The use of the word protocollum who had called. Protogenes on his return home took a brush for the introductory and other formulae in the medieval diploma with a different colour and drew a still finer line along that of (see DIPLOMATIC) thus explains itself as implying a recorded Apelles dividing it in two. Apelles called again; and, thus usage in such matters. challenged, drew with a third colour another line within that of Protogenes, who then admitted himself surpassed. This panel was seen by Pliny (N.H. xxxv. 83) in Rome, where it was much admired, and where it perished by fire. In the gallery of the Propylaea at Athens was to be seen a panel by Protogenes. The subject consisted of two figures representing personifications of the coast of Attica, Paralus and Hammonias. For the council chamber at Athens he painted figures of the Thesmothetae, but in what form or character is not known. Probably these works were executed in Athens, and it may have been then that he met Aristotle, who recommended him to take for subjects the deeds of Alexander the Great. In his "Alexander and Pan" he may have followed that advice in the idealizing spirit to which he was accustomed. To this spirit must be traced also his "Cydippe and "Tlepolemus," legendary personages of Rhodes. Among his portraits are mentioned those of the mother of Aristotle, Philiscus the tragic poet, and King Antigonus. But Protogenes was also a sculptor to some extent, and made several bronze statues of athletes, armed figures, huntsmen and persons in the act of offering sacrifices.

In the language of modern diplomacy the name of "protocol" is given to the minutes (procès-verbaux) of the several sittings of a conference or congress; these, though signed by the plenipotentiaries present, have only the force of verbal engagements (see CONGRESS). The name of "protocols is also given to certain diplomatic instruments in which, without the form of a treaty or convention being adopted, are recorded the principles or the matters of detail on which an agreement has been reached, e.g. making special arrangements for carrying out the objects of previous treaties, defining these objects more clearly, interpreting the exact sense of a doubtful clause in a treaty (protocoles interpretatifs) and the like. Thus the famous Troppau protocol, which annunciated the right and duty of the European powers to intervene in the internal affairs of a state threatened with revolution, was from the point of view of its signatories merely a logical application of the principles contained in the treaty of the 20th of November 1815 (see TROPPAU). Occasionally also an agreement between two or more powers takes the form of a protocol, rather than a treaty, when the intention is to proclaim a community of views or aims without binding them to eventual common action in support of those views or aims; thus the settlement of the question of the Danish succession was recognized by the powers in conference at London, by the protocol of 1852 (see SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION).

Finally, "the protocol" (protocole diplomatique, protocole de chancellerie) is the body of ceremonial rules to be observed in all written or personal official intercourse between the heads of different states or their ministers. Thus the protocol lays down in great detail the styles and titles to be given to states, their heads, and their public ministers, and the honours to be paid to them; it also indicates the forms and customary courtesies to be observed in all international acts. "It is," says M. PradierFodéré, "the code of international politeness."

Sce P. Pradier-Fodéré, Cours de droit diplomatique (Paris, 1899), ii. 499.

PROTOGENES, a Greek painter, born in Caunus, on the coast of Caria, but resident in Rhodes during the latter half of the 4th century B.C. He was celebrated for the minute and laborious finish which he bestowed on his pictures, both in drawing and in colour. Apelles, his great rival, standing astonished in presence of one of these works, could only console himself by

PROTOGENES (E. Haeckel), a little-known genus of Foraminifera (q.v.), marine organisms, forming a naked flat disk with numerous long radiating pseudopodia: nucleus and contractile vacuole not seen, and reproduction unknown.

PROTOMYXA (E. Haeckel), a genus of Foraminifera (q.v.), marine organisms, of orange colour, naked and reproducing in a broad-cyst which liberates 1-flagellate zoospores.

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PROTOPLASM, the name given in modern biology to a substance composing, wholly or in part, all living cells, tissues or organisms of any kind, and hence regarded as the primary living substance, the physical and material basis of life. The term 'protoplasma," from pâros, first, and wλáoμa, formed substance, was coined by the botanist Hugo von Mohl, in 1846, for the "tough, slimy, granular, semi-fluid constituent of plant cells, which he distinguished from the cellwall, nucleus and cell-sap. This was not, however, the first recognition of the true living substance as such, since this step had been achieved in 1835 by the French naturalist F. Dujardin, who in his studies on Foraminifera had proposed the term "sarcode " for the living material of their bodies in the following words: "Je propose de nommer ainsi ce que d'autres observateurs ont appelé une gelée vivante, cette substance glutineuse,

diaphane, insoluble dans l'eau, se contractant en masses globu |
leuses, s'attachant aux aiguilles de dissection, et se laissant étirer
comme du mucus, enfin se trouvant dans tous les animaux
inférieurs interposée aux autres éléments de structure." To the
French naturalist belongs, therefore, the real credit of the
discovery of protoplasm, or rather, to be more accurate, of
the first recognition of its true nature as the material basis of
vital phenomena. Neither Dujardin nor von Mohl, however,
had any conception of the universal occurrence and fundamental
similarity of protoplasm in all living things, whether animal or
vegetable, and it was not till 1861 that the identity of animal
sarcode and vegetable protoplasm was proclaimed by Max
Schultze, whose name stands out as the framer, if not the founder,
of the modern notions concerning the nature of the living sub-
stance. From this time onwards the term " protoplasm
used for the living substance of all classes of organisms,
although it would have been more in accordance with the
custom of priority in nomenclature to have made use of
Dujardin's term sarcode."

was

A living organism, of any kind whatsoever, may be regarded as composed of (1) protoplasm, (2) substances or structures produced by the protoplasm, either by differentiation or modification of the protoplasm itself, or by the excretory or secretory activity of the living substance. The protoplasm of a given organism may be in a single individual mass, or may be aggregated into a number of masses or units, discontinuous but not disconnected, termed cells (see CYTOLOGY). Thus living organisms may be distinguished, in a general way, as unicellular or multicellular. An instance of a unicellular organism is well seen in an Amoeba, or in one of the Foraminifera, classic examples for the study of undifferentiated protoplasm, which here composes the greater part of the body, while products of the formative activity of the protoplasm are seen in the external shell and in various internal granules and structures. As an example of a multicellular organism we may take the human body, built up of an immense number of living cells which produce, singly or in co-operation, a variety of substances and structures, each contributing to the functions of the body. This, without attempting to enter into details, the horny epidermis covering the body, the hairs, nails, teeth, skeleton, connective tissue, &c., are all of them products formed by the metabolic activity of the living substance and existing in intimate connexion with it, though not themselves to be regarded as living. In addition to metabolic products of this kind, special modifications of the living substance itself are connected with specializations or exaggerations, as it were, of a particular vital function; such are the contractile substance of muscular tissue, and the various mechanisms seen in nervous and sensory tissue. It is necessary, therefore, in a living body of any kind, to distinguish clearly between simple protoplasm, its differentiations and its products.

medium and oxidation of carbon atoms to form carbonic acid gas and other simple chemical compounds; in ordinary plant and animal protoplasm the process of respiration seems to be of universal occurrence, but some Bacteria constitute apparently an exception to the rule. Metabolism results not only in the generation of energy, but also, if anabolism be in excess of katabolism, in increase of bulk, and consequent growth and reproduction.

Living protoplasm is, therefore, considered from a chemical standpoint, in a state of continual flux and instability, and it follows that if protoplasm be a definite chemical substance or mixture of substances (see below), a given sample of protoplasm cannot be pure, or at least cannot remain so for any length of time so long as its power of metabolism is being exerted, but will contain particles either about to be built up by anabolism into its substance, or resulting from katabolic disintegration of its complex molecules. Hence it is convenient to distinguish the living substance from its metaplastic products of anabolism and katabolism. Such products are to be recognized invariably in protoplasm and take the form generally of granules and vacuoles. Granules vary in size from very minute to relatively large, coarse grains of matter, usually of a firm and solid nature. To the presence of innumerable granules is due the greyish, semi-transparent appearance of protoplasm, which in parts free from granules appears hyaline and transparent. Different samples of protoplasm may vary greatly in the number and coarseness of the granulations. Vacuoles are fluid drops of more watery consistence, which, when relatively small, assume a spherical form, as the result of surface tension acting upon a drop of fluid suspended in another fluid. When vacuoles are numerous and large, however, they may assume various forms from mutual pressure, like air-bubbles in a foam. A good example of frothy protoplasm, due to the presence of numerous vacuoles, is seen in the common "sun-animalcule" (Actinosphaerium). Or when the cell is confined by an envelope, and becomes very vacuolated, the vacuoles may become confluent to form a cellsap contained in a protoplasmic lining or "primordial utricle," and traversed by strands of protoplasm, as in the ordinary cells of plant-tissues. In many unicellular organisms, so-called contractile vacuoles are continually being formed as an act of excretion and expelled from the body when they reach a certain size.

While the majority of protoplasmic granules are probably to be regarded as metaplastic in nature, there is one class of granulations of which this is certainly not true, namely the grains of chromatin, so named from their peculiar affinity for certain dyes, such as carmine, logwood and various aniline stains. These grains may occur as chromidia, scattered through the protoplasm, or they may be concentrated at one or more spots to form a definite nucleus or nuclei, which may or may not be limited from the remaining protoplasm by a definite mem

Protoplasm from whatever source, whether studied in a cell of the human body, in an Amoeba or Foraminifer, or in a veget-brane, and may undergo further differentiations of structure able organism, is essentially uniform and similar in appearance and properties. Its appearance, graphically described by Dujardin in the passage quoted above, is that of a greyish, viscid, slimy, semi-transparent and semi-fluid substance. Its properties are those of living things generally, and the most salient and obvious manifestation of life is the power of automatic movement exhibited by living protoplasm. When free and not limited by firm envelopes, the movements take the character known generally as amoeboid, well shown in the common Amoeba or in the white corpuscles of the blood. When confined by rigid envelopes, as in plant-cells, the protoplasm exhibits streaming movements of various kinds. Even more essentially characteristic of the living matter than the power of movement is the property of metabolism-that is to say, the capacity of assimilating substances different from itself, of building them up into its own substance (anabolism), and of again decomposing these complex molecules into simpler ones (katabolism) with production of energy in the form of heat, movement and electrical phenomena. An important part of the metabolic process is respiration, i.e. the absorption of oxygen from the surrounding

which cannot be considered further here (see CYTOLOGY). The protoplasm of an ordinary cell is thus specialized into nucleus and cytoplasm. It was formerly thought that the most primitive forms of life, the Monera of E. Haeckel, consisted of pure protoplasm without a nucleus. It must be borne in mind, however, that chromatin can be present without being concentrated to form a definite nucleus, and that with imperfect technique the chromatin may easily escape observation. It seems justifiable at present to believe, until the contrary has been proved, that all organisms, however primitive, contain chromatin in some form: first, because this substance has always been found when suitable methods for its detection have been employed; secondly, because it has been shown experimentally, by cutting up small organisms, such as Amoeba, that enucleated fragments of protoplasm are unable to maintain their continued existence as living bodies; and, thirdly, because modern research has shown the chromatin to be of very great, perhaps fundamental, importance in regulating the vital processes of the cell and so determining the specific characters of the organism, a property which enables the chromatin to act

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