PROTECTOR, a Latin word (formed from protegere, to cover in front) adopted into English. In post-classical Latin the protectores were the body-guards of the emperors, and of the Praetorian prefects until, under Constantine the Great (306-7), they ceased to exercise military functions. The protectores. ith the domestici, continued to form the body-guard and household troops of the emperor. They were veterans selected from the legions, and were capable of being appointed to high commands. In the Roman curia the protectores regnorum are cardinals who take charge of the affairs of the "province" to which they are named which come before the Sacred College, and to present them for consideration. In England "protector" was used first for the regent during a minority (e.g. the Protector Somerset, and then by Oliver Cromwell when he assumed the government in 1653). The name thus acquired a revolutionary significance, and has not since been officially used in England. In Spanish America the bishops were officially protectors of the Indians. The title is convenient for a ruler who wishes to exercise control outside the limits of his direct sovereignty. Thus Napoleon called himself protector of the Confederation of the Rhine. The kings of France, and the governments which have arisen out of the Revolution, were protectors of the Latin Christians in the Turkish Empire, while the tsars of Russia have claimed the same position towards the Orthodox Christians. pro by S. Lloyd, London, 1904): A. M. Low, Protection in the United The Romans drew a distinction between foedera aequa and States (London, 1904); H. O. Meredith, Protection in France (London, foedera iniqua. The latter created a form of protectorate. 1904); S. N. Patten, Economic Basis of Protection (Philadelphia; But the protected state remained free. This is explained in a 1890); Ugo Rabbeno, American Commercial Policy (London, 1895); Ellis H. Roberts, Government Revenue, especially the American System, passage of the Digest 49. 15. 7: "Liber autem populus est is, an argument for industrial freedom against the fallacies of free trade qui nullius alterius populi potestati est subjectus, sive is foedera(Boston, 1884); R. E. Thompson, Protection to Home Industries tus est; item sive aequo foedere in amicitiam venit, sive foedere (New York, 1886); E. E. Williams, The Case for Protection (London, 1899): J. P. Young, Protection and Progress: a Study of the Economic comprehensum est, ut is populus alterius populi majestatem Bases of the American Protective System (Chicago, 1900). comiter conservaret. Hoc enim adjicitur, ut intelligatur alterum populum superiorem esse: non ut intelligatur alterum non esse liberum" (Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, 2nd ed., vol. i. P. 46, Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht, vol. iii. pt. 1, p. 645, and the instances collected by Pufendorf, 8 c. 9. 4). In medieval times this relation existed, and the term " tection" was in use. But the relation of subordination of one state to another was generally expressed in terms of feudal law. One state was deemed the vassal of another; the ruler of one did homage to the ruler of another. In his book De la République Bodin treats of ceux qui sont en protection (1. c. 7), or, as the Latin text has it, de patrocinio et clientela. In Bodin's view such states retain their sovereignty (1. c. 8). Discussing the question whether a prince who becomes a cliens of another loses his majestas, he concludes that, unlike the true vassal, the cliens is not deprived of sovereignty: "Nihilominus in foederibus et pacis actionibus, quae inter principes aut populos societate et amicitia conjunctissimos sancientur; eam vim habet ut nec alter alteri pareat, nec imperet: sed ut alter alterius majes tatem observare, sine ulla majestatis minutione teneatur. Itaque jus illud clientelare seu protectionis omnium maximum ac pulcherrimum inter principes censetur " (1 c. 7). Elsewhere Bodin remarks, "le mot de protection est special et n'emporte aucune subjection de celuy qui est en protection." He distinguishes the relation of seigneur and vassal from that of protecteur and adherent. As to whether the protected state or prince is sovereign, he remarks," je tiens qu'il demeure soverain, et n'est point subject." He makes clear this conception of protection by adding “l'advoué ou adherent doit estre exempte de la puissance du protecteur s'il contrevient aux traictes de protection. Voila donc la plus grande seureté de la protection, c'est empescher s'il est possible que les protecteurs ne soyent saisis des fortresses " &c. (p. 549, ed. 1580). Sometimes letters of protection were granted by a prince to a weak state, as e.g. by Louis XIII. in 1641 to the prince of Monaco (Gairal, p. 81). See App. B. to vol. ii. of Bury's edition of the Decline and Fall (London, 1896); Du Cange, Glossarium lat.; Sorel, L'Europe et la révolution française, vol. vii. (Paris, 1904). PROTECTORATE, in international law, now a common term to describe the relation between two states, one of which exercises control, great or small, direct or indirect, over the other. It is significant of the rare use of the term until recent times that the word does not occur in Sir G. C. Lewis's book on The Government of Dependencies. Yet the relation is very ancient. There have always been states which dominated their neigh- Reverting to the distinction in Roman law, Grotius and bours, but which did not think fit to annex them formally. It Pufendorf, with many others, treat protection as an instance of has always been politic for powerful states to facilitate and hide unequal treaties; that is," when either the promises are unequal, schemes of aggrandizement under euphemistic expressions; to or when either of the parties is obliged to harder conditions cloak subjection or dependence by describing it in words in- (De jure belli et pacis, 1 c. 13. 21; De jure naturae, 8. c. 9). offensive or strictly applicable to other relations. A common problem has been how to reduce a state to submission or sub- The following are some definitions of "protectorate ": " Principis ordination while ostensibly preserving its independence or exist-privilegium, quo ne alicui vis inferatur, cavetur, eumque in proicctionem suscipit." ence; to obtain power while escaping responsibility and the état à l'egard d'un autre moins puissant auquel il a Du Cange: "La situation d'un Definitions expenditure attending the establishment of a regular adminis- promis son appui d'une manière permanent (Gairal, torate. tration. Engelhardt (Les Protectorals anciens et modernes) and p. 52); a definition applicable only to certain simple forms of this relation.' other writers on the subject have collected a large number of "Pour le protégé, une condition de misouveraineté substituée à la pleine indépendance que comporte le instances in antiquity in which a true protectorate existed, even régime de simple protection (p. 58). "La situation respective de though the name was not used. Thus the Hegemony of Athens deux états de puissance inégale, dont l'un contracte l'obligation peras it existed about 467 B.C., was a form of protectorate; though manente de défendre l'autre, et en outre de le diriger" (p. 62). the subject states were termed allies, the so-called "allies in all important legal matters had to resort to Athens (Meyer, Geschichte des Alterthums, vol. iii. § 274). of Protec "Unter einem Protektorat versteht man ein Schutzverhältniss oder schutzherrliche Staat, zum dauernden Schutze des anderen In dealing with dependent nations Rome used terms which veiled subjection (Gairal, Les Protectorats internationaux, P. 26). Thus the relationship of subject or dependent cities to the dominant power was described as that of clientes to the patronus (Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, 2nd ed., vol. i. p. 80) Such cities might also be described as civitates foederatae "The one common element in Protectorates is the prohibition or civitates liberae. Another expression of the same fact was of all foreign relations except those permitted by the protecting that certain communities had come under the power of the state. What the idea of a protectorate excludes, and the idea of Roman people; in deditionem or in fidem populi romani venire annexation, on the other hand, would include, is that absolute (Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, i. 73, 81). The king-ownership which was signified by the word dominium in Roman law, and which, though not quite satisfactorily, is sometimes doms of Numidia, Macedonia, Syria and Pergamum were ex- described as 'territorial sovereignty.' The protected country amples of protected states, their rulers being termed inservientes. 1 remains, in regard to the protecting state, a foreign country; and ment of India, 2nd ed. p. 140). Existing Protec torates. this being so, the inhabitants of the protectorate, whether native- | directly affecting the British agent; (7) they receive advice, born or immigrant settlers, do not by virtue of the relationship which may be akin to commands. (See also Ilbert's Governbetween the protecting and the protected state become subjects of the protecting state" (Lord Justice Kennedy, Rex v. Crewe, 1910, 79, L.J., p. 802). "The mark of a protected state or people, Among the chief British protectorates are: The African groups, whether civilized or uncivilized, is that it cannot maintain political consisting of the western group-Gambia; Sierra Leone; Ashanti intercourse with foreign powers except through or by permission of (northern territory); Northern Nigeria; Southern Nigeria (with the protecting state (Hall, Foreign Jurisdiction of the British which is amalgamated Lagos). The southern group-Bechuanaland; Crown, p. 218). "A British protectorate is a country which is not Southern Rhodesia; Swaziland. The central group-North-east within British dominions, but as regards its foreign relations is Rhodesia and North-west Rhodesia; Nyasaland. The eastern group under the exclusive control of the King, so that its government -British East Africa; Uganda; Zanzibar and Pemba (sometimes cannot hold direct communication with any other foreign power, described as "a sphere of influence "); Somaliland; and the Sudan. nor a foreign power with that Government Jenkyns, British Rule There is a group of protectorates near Aden, including the island and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas, p. 165; Reinsch, Colonial Govern- of Sokotra. There are also the Bahrein Islands in the Persian Gulf. ment, p. 109; Payne, Colonies and Colonial Federations, p. 194). Jurisdiction over these protectorates is, generally speakThe term is used very loosely. Often it designates a relationing, exercised under orders in council made under the which it is deemed politic to leave indefinite: a state desires to Foreign Jurisdiction Act 1890 (Burge's Colonial and obtain the reality of conquest without the responsibilities attaching Foreign Law, 2nd ed., p. 320). There is also the Malay thereto. Protectorate may mean no more than what it says: group, consisting of the Malay States in the Borneo peninsula and "One state agrees to protect or guarantee the safety of another." in Borneo, the protectorates of North Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak. The term is also employed to describe any relation of a political Protectorates also exist in the Western Pacific group of islands superior to an inferior state. It is also used as the equivalent of (including the Friendly Islands, the Ellice and Gilbert group, and suzerainty. As appears from the article SUZERAINTY, the terms the British Solomon Islands). are distinguishable. But both imply a desire to carry out changes without friction and not to break up ancient forms; both proceed on the plan of securing to the stronger state the substance of power while allowing the weaker state a semblance of its old constitution. It is a form of empire or state building which appears when a powerful, expanding state comes in contact with feebler political organizations, or when a state falls into decay, and disintegration sets in. The creation of a protectorate is convenient for the superior and the inferior; it relieves the former from the full responsibilities incident to annexation; it spares to some extent the feelings of the latter. Certain protectorates originate in treaties; others have been imposed by force. Some are accompanied by occupation, in which case it is difficult to distinguish them from annexation. Thus the treaty of May 1881, art. 2, between France and Tunis, provides for the occupation of strategical points by the protecting statc (A. Devaulx, Les Protectorals de la France, p. 21). The establishment of a protectorate may be akin to a guarantee. Generally, however, the former implies a closer relation than a guarantee; and the two relations may be widely different, as may be seen by comparing treaties of guarantee with the treaty establishing the protectorate of Tunis. There is the interesting case of Papua (formerly British New Guinea), over which a protectorate was established in 1884, but which became in 1906 a territory of the Australian Commonwealth. There are also dependencies, or protectorates, attached to India, Baluchistan, Sikkim and Andaman Islands. France possesses several protectorates, of which the chief are Tunis, Annam and Tongking. Her policy has been until lately to transform them into French territory. Such change has taken place as to Tahiti and Madagascar, and such in effect is the position of the Indo-China protectorates (Devaulx, Les Protectorats de la France; Report by Mr Lister, Parl. Papers 1908, Cd. 3883). The chief German protectorates are South-west Africa, Togoland and Cameroon, German East Africa, Kaiser Wilhelm Land, Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, and Kiaochow-under lease from China-(Zeitschrift für Kolonialrecht, 1907, p. 311). Russia has the protectorates of Khiva and Bokhara; and China exercises or claims rights as protector of certain dependencies. There are two principal classes of protectorates; the first being those exercised generally by treaty over civilized countries. Of the first, the chief are: (a) that of Cracow, which was recognized by the Treaty of Vienna as an independent state, and placed under the protection of Russia: it was incorpor and France as successors of the counts of Foix (See ANDORRA); (c) the Ionian Islands, placed under the protection of Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris of 1815. Strictly speaking, a protectorate cannot exist over a domain|ated with Austria in 1846; (b) Andorra, protected by Spain uninhabited or ruled by no organized state; in such cases the elements of the true protectorates are wanting. But the distinction is not adhered to. The difficulty of defining the relations between the protected and the protecting states is greater, because a protectorate may imply a condition of transition: a contractual or limited relation of state to state, more or less rapidly changing into true union. Indian Pro The second class of protectorates consists of those exercised by one civilized state over an uncivilized people, sometimes called a "Colonial Protectorate or pseudo-protectorate," and usually the preparatory step to annexation. These have become common, especially in Africa, since 1878. The second class may be subdivided into two groups: (a) protectorates exercised over countries with organized governments and under recognized sovereigns, such as the Malay States; and (b) those exercised over countries possessing no stable or definite governments and rulers. The territories of chartered companies, when not within the dominion of the protecting state, may also for some purposes be regarded as protectorates. It has been the policy of the British government in India to establish on the frontiers, as elsewhere, protectorates. The political advantages of the system are pointed out in Sir A. Lyall's Rise and Expansion of the British Dominion in India. It is a system "whereby the great conquering or commercial peoples masked, so to speak, their irresistible advance "; it was much practised by the Romans in Africa and tectorates. Asia; it has been chiefly applied in modern times in India (p. 326). The Indian states are sometimes described as "Feudatory States," sometimes "Indepen- Attempts have been made to define the reciprocal rights dent and Protected States" (Twiss), sometimes Mediatized and duties of protecting and protected states. Sometimes States" (Chesney), sometimes "Half-Sovereign," sometimes the treaty creating the relation defines the obligaRights and as in a position of "subordinate alliance" (Lord Salisbury, tions. Thus in the treaty, with respect to Sarawak Duties of Parliamentary Papers, 1897 [c. 8700]. § 27). The Inter- the latter is described as an independent state Protecting pretation Act, 1889 (52 & 53 Vic. c. 63, s. 18), refers to the under the protection of Great Britain." "Such and Indian native princes as under the "suzerainty" of the British protection shall confer no right on his Majesty's States. Crown. These states are really sui generis,and their precise position government to interfore with the internal adcan be understood only by a private examination of the treaties ministration of that state further than is herein provided." affecting them. The following are the chief points as to which The British consular officers are to receive exequaturs in the Indian states are subject to English law: (1) the governor- name of the government of Sarawak. Foreign relations are general is empowered to make laws for servants of the British to be conducted by that government, and the raja cannot government and European and native Indian subjects of his cede or alienate any part of the territory without the consent majesty; (2) British laws are in force in certain parts of the native of the British government (Hertslet, 18. 227). In the treaty states e.g. in cantonments; (3) native princes have adopted certain creating a protectorate over the territories of the king and British laws, e.g. the Indian Penal Code; (4) they have no ex-chief of Opopo (Hertslet, 17. 130) the sovereign undertakes to ternal relations with foreign states; (5) the king is the donor of honours; (6) acts of parliament affect them indirectly by Protected extend to them, and to the territory under their authority and jurisdiction, his favour and protection. They promise not to Protector ates and Inter national Law. ་་ enter into any correspondence, agreement or treaty with any represented that effective occupation should be a condition to foreign nation or power, except with the knowledge and sanction | the creation of a protectorate on the coast of Africa. But this of his Majesty's government." Some treaties establishing was opposed by England, and was not adopted (Laband, ii. 680). protectorates provide for direct interference with internal Many writers adhere to the doctrine that there is no impairaffairs; for example, the treaty of 1847 creating a French pro- ment of sovereignty of the weaker state by the establishment tectorate over Tahiti, and that of 1883 as to Tunis. Sometimes of a protectorate. They also allege that it is res inter alios acta, the Oberstaat-to use a convenient expression--is content to an arrangement which concerns only parties to it. But the insist upon the presence of a resident, who guides the policy of trend of recent policy and purport of much recent legislation the native ruler. In the case of protectorates over uncivilized are against this view. The distinct tendency, especially as to countries it is usual to stipulate against alienation of territory protectorates over uncivilized countries, is to treat, for purposes without consent of the Oberstaat. of international law, the territory of a protectorate as if it belonged to the protecting state. If France, for example, permitted in Tunis or other protectorates operations of an unfriendly character to any power, the injured power would no doubt look to France for redress. This view would probably be strongly pressed in the case of protectorates over countries having no well-defined or stable government. The probability is that in such cases governments and courts applying international law would probably be guided not by technical facts--such, to take the case of British possessions, as the fact that an order in council permitted appeals to the Judicial Committee-but would look to the facts of the case. Any state which undertakes to protect another assumes towards the rest of the world responsibility for its good behaviour-the more complete protection the more extensive the responsibility-and this responsibility involves a duty to interfere if need be " (Coolidge, United States as a World Power," p. 167; and to the same effect Liszt, Völkerrecht, p. 31; and Zorn, Völkerrecht, p. 45). The tendency is for protecting states to assert jurisdiction over foreigners within the territories of the protected states (Westlake, 187; Jenkyns, p. 176; Ilbert, 2nd ed., 393, 434). Mr Hall remarks (International Law, 6th ed., p. 126 n.) that "all the states represented at the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, with the exception of Great Britain, maintained that the normal jurisdiction of a protectorate includes the right of administering justice over the subjects of other civilized states." The General Act contemplated measures which are scarcely compatible with the exemption of European traders and adventurers from the local civilized jurisdiction. He points out that Great Britain-which until lately took the view that a protected state possesses only delegated powers, and that an Eastern state cannot grant jurisdiction over persons who are neither its own subjects nor subjects of the country to which the powers are delegated-had by the Pacific Order in Council of 1893 and the South African Orders in Council of 1891-1894 asserted jurisdiction over natives and foreign subjects. "The Orders show a gradual increase of the assumption of internal sovereignty" (Jenkyns, 193). A similar process is observable in the German protectorates, which are treated for some purposes as "inland," and not foreign territory (Der koloniale Inlands- und Auslands-begriff, Zeitschrift für Kolonialrecht, 1907, p. 311). The fact is that in the case of protectorates over uncivilized or semi-civilized countries a development is inevitable: control quickly hardens into conquest, and international law more and more takes note of this fact. The legal position of protectorates is still somewhat undetermined; there are an old view and also a new view of their nature. The relation may be one of international law, two states having entered into obligations by treaty. Or the relation may be one of public law; one of two states has become subordinate to, and incorporated with, the other. The general rule is that the protected state does not cease to be a sovereign state, if such was its previous status. Its head is still entitled to the immunities and dignity of a sovereign ruler. Further, the establishment of a protectorate does not necessarily rescind treaties made between the protected state and other states, at all events when it is not in reality conquest or cession, or when any modification would be to the injury of third parties (Parl. Papers, Madagascar, 1897 [c. 8700]; Trione, 187). Nor does the new relation make any change as to the nationality of the subjects of the two states, though in some countries facilities are afforded to the subjects of the Unterstaat to transfer their allegiance; and they owe a certain ill-defined degree of obedience | to the protecting state. Nor, speaking generally, does the territory of the protected state become part of the territory of the Oberstaat; in this respect is it unlike a colony, which may be regarded as an extension or outlying province of the country. At the same time, the question whether a particular protectorate forms part of the "dominion" or "territory" of the Crown for any purposes or within the meaning of any statute cannot be regarded as wholly free from doubt; its terms and intention must be examined. In Rex v. Crewe (1910, 79, L. J. 874) the Court of Appeal decided that the Bechuanaland Protectorate was not part of the dominion of the Crown, but was foreign territory. Several writers propose this distinctionthe protected country is to be considered a part of the territory as to certain important sovereign rights, and as to other matters not. In one view, for the purpose of municipal law, the territory of a protectorate is not, but for the purposes of international law is, within the territory of the protecting state. In another view, such territory is foreign only in the sense that it is not within the purview of the majority of statutes (see Hall's International Law, 6th ed., 126, Heilborn, 535; Tupper's Indian Protectorates, 336; Laband, 2, § 70). The older view of the position of a protectorate according to international law is contained in the decision of Dr Lushington in the case of the "Leucade (8 S.T., N.S., 432), to the effect that, the declaration of war by Great Britain against Russia notwithstanding, the Ionian Islands, which were then under the protectorate of Great Britain, remained neutral. The king of Great Britain had the right of declaring peace and war, "Such a right is inseparable from protection." But the Ionian states did not become necessarily enemies of the state with which Great Britain was at war. According to one view, the protected state is implicated in the wars to which the protecting state is a party only when the latter has acquired a right of military occupation over the territory of the former. "Cette solution a été reconnue par la France en 1870, à propos de la guerre contre l'Allemagne pour les iles Taiti alors soumises a notre protectorat; elle s'imposerait pour la Tunisie, l'Annam et Tonkin, et pour le Cambodge, où les traités nous conférent le droit d'occupation militaire (M. Despagnet). In the event of hostilities between the protecting and protected states, such hostilities would be regarded not as of the nature of an insurrection, but as a regular war (Trione, 149). By the General Act of the Berlin Conference it was agreed that the acquisition of a protectorate should be notified to the signatories to the agreement (art. 34), and it has been the practice to give such notice. It was proposed by some of the powers AUTHORITIES.-Bodin, Les Six livres de la République (Lyons, 1580); De republica libri sex (Paris, 1586); Stengel, Die Staatsund völkerrechtliche Stellung der deutschen Colonien (1886); Heimburger, Der Erwerb der Gebietshgheit (1888); D'Orgeval, Les Protectorats allemands; annales de l'Ecole des Sciences Politiques (1890); Wilhelm, Théorie juridique des protectorats (1890); Despagnet, Essai sur les protectorats (1896); Heilborn, Das völkerrechtliche Protectorat (1891); Hall, The Foreign Jurisdiction of the British Crown (1894); Stengel, Die deutschen Schutzgebiete (1895); Gairal, Les Protectorats internationaux; Iéze, Étude théorique, &c., sur l'occupation, &c. (1896); Trione, Gli stati civili nei loro rapporti giuridici coi popoli barbari e semibarbari (1889); Ilbert, The Government of India (1898); Jenkyns, British Rule and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas (1902); Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches (1876-1882), Revue de droit international, civilisés, et barbares, xvii. 1, xviii. 188; Stengel, Die Rechtsverhältnisse der deutschen Schutzgebiete (1901); Devaulx, Les Protectorats de la France (1903) article "Protectorates' in the Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England, 2nd ed., vol. xi.; Baty, Crewe (1910) 79, L.J. 874: Von Stengel in Zeitschrift für KoloInternational Law (1909); Ullmann, Völkerrecht, § 26 (1908); Rex v. nialrecht (1909), p. 258; Sir W. Lee-Warner, Protected State of India (1910). U. M PROTEOMY XA, a name given by E. Ray Lankester (Ency." Monera " of Haeckel, supposed (erroneously in most if not all Bril., 9th ed., 1885, art." Protozoa, "") to a group of Protozoa species adequately studied) to possess no nucleus in the protoSarcodina. The group was really recognized as distinct by plasm. The following are the characteristics of the group. Cienkowski and by Zopf, receiving the name of Monadinea from Pseudopods, usually granular, fine flexible, tapering generally, di ba duobodi to nam boog lo svizuar not freely branching; reproducing sometimes by simple fission, de prin but more frequently by multiple fission in a brood-cyst whose pla of baadae walls may be multiple. Plasmodium formation occasional, but coisataon anu never leading to the formation of a massive fructification: other syngamic processes unknown, and probably non-existent. Encystment, or at least a resting stage at full growth, is very characteristic, and frequently an excretion of granules takes place into the first-formed cyst, whereupon a second inner cyst is formed which may be followed by a third. These brood-cysts, in which multiple fission takes place, may be of two kinds. sad ordinary and resting, the latter being distinguished by a firm, lab and usually ornamented and cuticularized cell-wall, and only F030 producing its zoospores after an interval. Besides, an indiORS vidual at any age may under unfavourable conditions surround sad itself with a "hypnocyst," to pass the time until matters are logo more suitable to active life, when it emerges unchanged. lo ba From the initial character of the brood-cell on leaving, the sporocyst the dividing character of the two orders is taken. Vampyrella (figs. 1-3) and Enteromyxa also form a compact plasmodium which separates into 1-nucleate cells, which then encyst dial and divide into a brood of four. udD BIBLIOGRAPHY.-F. Cienkowski in Archiv für mikroskopische has Anatomie (1865); Haeckel, "Die Moneren," in Jenaische Zeitschr (1868), vol. iv.: W. Zopf, "Die Monadineen," in Schenk's Handbuch der Botanik (1887), vol. iii. pt. ii., and Beiträge zur Physiologie und Morphologie niederer Organismen (1890); Delage and E. Hérouard, Traité de zoologie concrète, vol. i.; La Cellule et les protozoaires (1896); Marcus Hartog, Cambridge Natural History (1906), vol. i. spila od M HA.) ATH O ansaugo osi Long &quo omstillielaids Shalsidade ainst le site stadi samo boa anam ad abot so dguard Judoidado amblagelle naisel pd laiem Then gniom esses dandoid to yub adi lavo 1. Vampyrella spirogyrae, Cienk., amoeba phase penetrating a cell of Spirogyra b, by a process of its protoplasm c, and taking up the substance of the Spirogyra cell, some of which is seen within the Vampyrella a. 2. Large individual of Vampyrella, showing pseudopodia e, and food particles a. The nucleus. (though present) is not shown in this drawing. 3. Cyst phase of Vampyrella. The contents of the cyst have divided into four equal parts, of which three are visible. One is commencing to break its way through the cyst-wall f; a, food particles, oo 4, Archerina boltoni, Lankester, showing lobose and filamentous protoplasm, and three groups of chlorophyll corpuscles. The protoplasm g is engulphing a Bacterium i. maltadilo elimi 5. Cyst phase of Archerina: a, spinous cyst-wall; b, green-coloured 6, Chlorophyll corpuscle of Archerina showing tetraschistic division. 7. Actinophryd form of Archerina: b, chlorophyll corpuscles.g 8, Protogenes primordialis, Haeckel (Amoeba porrecta, M. Schultze), from Schultze's figure. the former; but as this name had been usually applied to Flagellates and even the zoospores are not always provided with flagella, Lankester's name has become more suitable, and has been adopted by Delage and Hérouard (1896) and by Hartog (1906). The group entered to a considerable extent into the ni PROTESILAUS, in Greek legend, son of Iphiclus, and husband of Laodameia. In command of the Greek contingent from Phylace in Thessaly, he was the first to spring ashore on Trojan soil, although he knew it meant instant death. His wife besought the gods below that he might be permitted to return to earth for the space of three hours. Her prayer was granted, and on the expiration of the time allotted she returned with him to the nether world. According to Hyginus (Fab. 103, 104), Laodameia made a waxen image of her husband. A slave, having detected her in the act of embracing it and supposing it to be a lover, informed her father, who ordered her to burn the image; whereupon she threw herself with it into the flames. In another account (Conon, Narrationes, 13) Protesilaus survived the fall of Troy and carried off Aethilla, the sister of Priam. During a halt on the peninsula of Pallene, Aethilla and the other captive women set fire to the ships. Protesilaus, unable to continue his voyage, remained and built the city of Scione. His tomb and temple were to be seen near Eleus in the Thracian Chersonese. Nymphs had planted elm-trees, facing towards Troy, which withered away as soon as they had grown high enough to see the captured city. Protesilaus was the subject of a tragedy by Euripides, of which some fragments remain. Iliad, ii. 698; Lucian, Dial mort. xxiii. 1; Ovid, Heroides, xiii.; Philostratus, Heroica, iii. 1 horribugar the clergy and laity, and is even sometimes used by them in a derogatory sense as applied to their fellow churchmen who still uphold in their integrity the principles of the Reformation. Among the latter, on the other hand," Protestantism" is used as exclusive of a good many of the doctrines and practices which in the Lutheran Church were at one time "Protestant" as opposed to "Reformed," e.g. the doctrine of the real Presence, By many churchmen, too, the name of "Protestant" is accepted in what they take to be the old sense as implying repudiation of the claims of Rome, but as not necessarily involving a denial of "Catholic" doctrine or any confusion of the Church of England with non-episcopal churches at home or abroad. PROTESTANT, the generic name for an adherent of those Churches which base their teaching on the principles of the Reformation (q.v.). The name is derived from the formal Protestatio handed in by the evangelical states of the empire, including some of the more important princes and 14 imperial cities, against the recess of the diet of Spires (1529), which decreed that the religious status quo was to be preserved, that no innovations were to be introduced in those states which had not hither-auricular confession, the use of ceremonial lights and vestments. to made them, and that the mass was everywhere to be tolerated. The name Protestant seems to have been first applied to the protesting princes by their opponents, and it soon came to be used indiscriminately of all the adherents of the reformed religion. Its use appears to have spread more rapidly outside Germany than in Germany itself, one cause of its popularity being that it was negative and colourless, and could thus be applied by adherents of the "old religion" to those of the "new religion," without giving offence, on occasions when it was expedient to avoid abusive language. The designation was moreover grateful to the Reformers as connoting a certain boldness of attitude; and Professor Kattenbusch (Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie, 3rd ed., xvi. p. 136, 15) points out with great truth how, from this point of view, the name "Protestantism" has survived as embodying for many the conception of liberty, of the right of private judgment, of toleration for every progressive idea in religion, as opposed to the Roman Catholic principles of authority and tradition; so that many even of those who do not "profess and call themselves Christians" yet glory in the name of "Protestant." 99.66 As the designation of a Church, "Protestant " was unknown during the Reformation period and for a long while after. In Germany the Reformers called themselves usually evangelici, and avoided special designations for their communities, which they conceived only as part of the true Catholic Church; " Calvinists," "Lutherans,' Zwinglians" were, in the main, terms of abuse intended to stamp them as followers of one or other heretical leader, like Arians or Hussites. It was not until the period of the Thirty Years' War that the two main schools of the reformed or evangelical Churches marked their definitive separation: the Calvinists describing themselves as the "Reformed Church," the Lutherans as the "Lutheran Church." In France, in England, in Holland the evangelicals continued to describe their churches as ecclesiae reformatae, without the arrière pensée which in Germany had confined the designation "Reformed" to the followers of a particular church order and doctrine. As to the word "Protestant," it was never applied to the Church of England or to any other, save unofficially and in the wide sense above indicated, until the style "Protestant Episcopal Church" (see below) was assumed by the Anglican communion in the United States. Even in the Bill of Rights the phrase "Protestant religion" occurs, but not "Protestant Church," and it was reserved for the Liberal government, in the original draft (afterwards changed) of the Accession Declaration Bill introduced in 1910, to suggest "Protestant Reformed Church of England "as a new title for the Established Church. The style" Protestant " had, however, during the 19th century assumed a variety of new shades of meaning which necessarily made its particular application a somewhat hazardous proceeding. In Germany it had, for a while, been assumed by the Lutherans as against the Calvinists, and when in 1817 King Frederick William III. of Prussia forcibly amalgamated the Lutheran and Reformed Churches in the new 66 Evangelical Church "its public use was forbidden in the Prussian dominions. It survived, however, in spite of royal decrees, but in an altered sense. It became to quote Professor Kattenbusch-the 39 secular designation of the adherents of the Reformation, the shibboleth of the "liberal" ecclesiastical and theological tendencies. Finally, in opposition to the ultramontane movement in the Roman Catholic Church, it came once more into fashion in something of its original sense among the evangelicals. In the Church of England, on the other hand, the name " 'Protestant" has, under the influence of the High Church reaction, been repudiated by an increasingly large number of In contradistinction to all these somewhat refined meanings, the term " Protestant" is in common parlance applied to all Christians who do not belong to the Roman Catholic Church, or to one or other of the ancient Churches of the East. PROTESTANTENVEREIN is the name of a society in Germany the general object of which is to promote the union (l'erein) and progress of the various established Protestant Churches of the country in harmony with the advance of culture and on the basis of Christianity. It was founded at Frankfort-on-theMain in 1863 by a number of distinguished clergymen and laymen of liberal tendencies, representing the freer parties of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches of the various German states, amongst whom were the statesmen Bluntschli and Von Bennigsen and the professors R. Rothe, H. Ewald, D. Schenkel, A. Hilgenfeld and F. Hitzig. The more special objects of the association are the following: the development of the Churches on the basis of a representative parochial and synodal system of government in which the laity shall enjoy their full rights; the promotion of a federation of all the Churches in one national Church; resistance to all hierarchical tendencies both within and without the Protestant Churches; the promotion of Christian toleration and mutual respect amongst the various confessions; the rousing and nurture of the Christian life and of all Christian works necessary for the moral strength and prosperity of the nation. These objects include opposition to the claims of Rome and to autocratic interference with the Church on the part of either political or ecclesiastical authorities, efforts to induce the laity to claim and exercise their privileges as members of the Church, the assertion of the right of the clergy, laity and both lay and clerical professors to search for and proclaim freely the truth in independence of the creeds and the letter of Scripture. Membership in the association is open to all Germans who are Protestants and declare their willingness to co-operate in promoting its objects. The means used to promote these objects are mainly (1) the formation of local branch associations throughout the country, the duty of which is by lectures, meetings and the distribution of suitable literature to make known and advocate its principles, and (2) the holding of great annual or biennial meetings of the whole association, at which its objects and principles are expounded and applied to the circumstances of the Church at the moment. The "theses" accepted by the general meetings of the association as the result of the discussions on the papers read indicate the theological position of its members. The following may serve as illustrations: The creeds of the Protestant Church shut the doors on the past only, but open them for advance in the future; it is immoral and contrary to true Protestantism to require subscription to them. The limits of the freedom of teaching are not prescribed by the letter inquiry in and about the Scriptures. The attempt to limit the of Scripture, but a fundamental requirement of Protestantism is free freedom of theological inquiry and teaching in the universities is a violation of the vital principle of Protestantism. Only such conceptions of the person of Jesus can satisfy the religious necessities of history. The higher reason only has unconditional authority, and this age as fully recognize the idea of his humanity and place in the Bible must justify itself before its tribunal; we find the history of divine revelation and its fulfilment in the Bible alone, and reason of religious belief. bids us regard the Bible as the only authority and canon in matters The formation of the association at once provoked fierce and determined opposition on the part of the orthodox sections |
