"divine right of kings" was the essential piety of the "Holy Alliance." Francis of Austria and his minister, Prince Metternich, became ardent advocates of the old order, and not only restored it in Vienna, but used all their influence against liberal tendencies in the German states, over which Austria exercised a sort of presidency.

Louis XVIII. granted a fairly liberal constitution in France, but unwisely accepted the counsel of emigrants who had deserted their country and aided her enemies during the revolution. As a result of unfair election laws, the legislature soon contained many friends of the old order of things, who tried to bring back in a measure the "good old times." This course was very unpopular, and the right to vote was extended to merchants and manufacturers, whose liberalizing influence was soon felt. Unfortunately, in 1820 a fanatic assassinated a strong conservative, the Duke of Berry. At once a cry was raised that dangerous republican notions were rife again, a reaction set in, severely conservative laws were passed, and the public school system was put into the hands of the Catholic clergy. The death of Louis in 1824 put upon the throne his brother, Charles X., who continued a reactionary policy until 1830, when a popular revolt drove him from power.

This protest of France against a return to the past caused excitement in all parts of Europe. The various German rulers under the influence of Austria had either refused constitutions, granted half measures, or withdrawn concessions. The universities and literary men had agitated earnestly for liberty, but met with severe repression.

The Paris revolution of 1830 was the signal for outbreaks in Saxony and the minor German states, by which the governments were in a measure brought to terms. The arranging of a "customs union,” which with the exception of Austria included the principal German states, was a first step toward

German unity. In Spain and Naples the tyranny of the restored families had caused uprisings, which were put down by the aid of France and Austria. Greece had thrown off the Turkish yoke in 1827. In 1830 Belgium, joined to Holland against her will by the Congress of Vienna, revolted and set up an independent constitutional government.

In England the years from 1815 to 1832 saw the government policy gradually liberalized. The law which had long prevented Catholics from holding office was repealed, and the representation in Parliament which had been unjust in the extreme was vastly improved by the "reform bill" of 1832. After the abdication of Charles X. in 1830, there was talk of another French republic, but at last Louis Phillippe, a cousin of Charles, was chosen king upon his expressly promising a liberal constitution. He liked to be styled "the citizen king," but the Bourbon blood ran in his veins. His reign was characterized by avarice and family ambition, gradually growing conservatism, a weak foreign policy, bad election laws, and industrial distress. The refusal in 1848 to grant certain popular demands brought on an important revolution.

This third French uprising had a most important influence on the rest of Europe. Even Austria felt the shock, and Metternich, the arch-conservative, was driven from Vienna. A national parliament was called, and fair promises made. Francis abdicated in favor of his son, Francis Joseph, the present emperor. Most of the revolts were easily suppressed, but Hungary, an unwilling part of the Austrian empire, was subdued only with the aid of Russia.

Prussia and other German states were the scenes of popular outbreaks, followed by concessions and constitutional reforms. Another attempt to unite Germany into a federation gave promise of success, but the time had not yet come. The rivalry between Austria, the old leader of Germany, and

Prussia, the new aspirant for that honor, became more and more apparent. Italy caught the spirit of the times. Revolutions occurred in almost every state. In the north there were demonstrations against the hated power of Austria, and attempts to establish a free and "united Italy." The king of Sardinia was especially active, but, defeated by Austria, he resigned his throne to his son, Victor Emanuel. France, meanwhile, in alleged defense of the pope, had occupied Rome.

The downfall of Louis Phillippe in France was followed by a republic, and for a time by a dictatorship. The socialistic ideas then current, the demoralizing influence of "government workshops "-a socialistic device for aiding the unemployedand the general feeling of unrest and uncertainty, all made a demand for strong government. A republican constitution was set up, and Louis Napoleon, a nephew of Bonaparte, was chosen president by an overwhelming popular vote. Twice before, he had failed ridiculously in attempts to gain power, but this time his name and the career of his famous uncle worked in his favor. Louis Napoleon, though vain, was not so weak a man as he was generally supposed to be. Following the traditions of his family, he restored the empire by strategy, and was recognized in 1852 as Napoleon III. He declared that his sole aim would be to promote the welfare of France and the peace of Europe.

England since 1830 had seen important changes, chief of which was the repeal in 1844 of the "corn laws," measures which by unjustly taxing imported grain had cruelly oppressed the body of the nation. Other indefensible trade restrictions were also abolished. Poor laws, under which a premium had been put upon pauperism, were modified. Queen Victoria had ascended the throne in 1837. Large conquests had been made in India.

France and England found themselves allies in 1853-56 in the

Crimean War. Russia, always with an envious eye on Constantinople, found a pretext for war with Turkey. France and

ROUMELIA
MONTENEGRO Philipopolis

Adrianopleo Constantinople

cess that the union TURKEY

of Italy seemed virtually accomplished. But the French emperor made a separate peace with Austria by which the latter was to retain Venice. All the other countries except the papal states joined Victor Emanuel's government, and, in part at least, the ideal was realized.

The attention of Europe was now turned toward Germany, where Prussia and Austria only needed a pretext to join battle. Prussia under King William, Bismarck, the "iron chancellor," and General Von Moltke, had become powerful in affairs and in arms. An excuse for the conflict was found in a dispute over the control of a small district, Schleswig-Holstein. War was declared in 1866, and after a short, vigorous campaign ended in the complete triumph of Prussia and the formation of the North German Confederation, in which the government of

William I. had the predominant power, and the command of the united armies. Austria, as one of the articles of peace, ceded Venice to Italy, and thus another step was taken toward that union of the peninsula which was accomplished in 1871, when French interference in Rome was withdrawn.

Napoleon III. was chagrined by Prussia's sudden and brilliant victory. He had hoped to act as arbitrator in the dispute and to extend French territory on the east. The French people were dissatisfied with the empire at home and could be

appeased only by

victories abroad.

Under pressure of

necessity, Napoleon

(BOSNIA) found excuse in

certain fancied in

sults, for declaring

war.

France was

aflame at once, and Germany responded enthusiastically to the call of Prussia. The poorly equipped and disciplined French soldiers were no match for the German

troops. Napoleon surrendered at Se

After a siege of four months Paris

capitulated, January 18, 1871. Just before the close of the siege, the German princes assembled at Versailles and decided to establish a German empire. William of Prussia was crowned emperor, and within a short time the present government was