where particular reasons made their interference necessary. Nicholas II. and Alexander II. in the eleventh century, despatched similar representatives for inquiring into and suppressing heresies, a practice of too great value to the interest of the papal chair to be neglected by Gregory VII. Besides precedence and the presidency at synods and provincial Councils, these functionaries laid claim to judicial powers of an extent so formidable, as led to an opposition on the part of the prelates whose diocesan authority was thus invaded. Several effected a perpetual union of the office of legates with their respective sees.

Of legates, there were, during the middle ages, two classes; the first, consisting of those holding office, as the possessors of an archiepiscopal see, such as Rheims, Canterbury, and York; the second, of legates especially despatched from the side of the pope, (according to an expression used at a very early period). The jurisdiction of both classes as representatives of the pope was clearly defined, and concurrent in the first instance with that of the bishops. In the case of the firstmentioned or permanent class, as in the parallel one of the Palgraves*, the legatine authority became gradually titular; while to the second, or legates a latere, especial privileges were reserved; such as those of granting certain dispensations, confirming elections of bishops and abbots, and (if of cardinal rank) of filling up vacant benefices. The powers of a legate of the first class sunk into abeyance during the presence of one a latere, as likewise the privilege, ordinarily enjoyed by archbishops and patriarchs, of having a cross borne before them. To matters of primary importance solely their jurisdiction did not extend, as the division or union of sees, the translation or deposition of bishops; but restrictions were gradually placed on their authority, and its valid exercise was made dependent (as in England, France, and Spain,) upon the assent of the sovereign. Their concurrent jurisdiction with the bishops was subsequently abolished by the Council of Trent: in other respects the relations of the office continued unaltered. Various permanent nuncioships have

Compare Raumer, H. v. 49, and for the advantages which might have accrued to the papacy from this office, vi. 77, 78. G. d.

been since established, either from some political embassies assuming this character, or from an increased degree of spiritual superintendence being considered necessary*.

According to their present constitution, the apostolic legates and representatives may be divided into three classes: I. The hereditary legates hold their office by virtue of some other ecclesiastical dignity, as the archbishops of Cologne and Prague in Germany, but with merely titular honours. The king of Sicily possesses within his dominions the title of apostolic legate, the functions of which are discharged by a particular tribunal. This privilege, as it is termed, of the Sicilian monarchy is founded upon a bull of Urban II. issued to Roger in 1099, and expressly confirmed by Benedict XIII. in 1728.

II, Of the actual papal commissioners there are three ranks : Those of the first rank, or legates a latere, are chosen from among the cardinals, receiving their instructions directly from the pope, for extraordinary or important missions. For the office of nuncios, or those of the second class, and occasionally furnished with legatine powers a latere, other prelates besides cardinals are eligible. Their appointments are either temporary or permanent, their powers being regulated by special instructions, and the permission of exercising them obtained by assent of the government of the country in question. Their ordinary duties are less concerned with the internal administration of the church than with the necessary communications between different courts, in which they are the diplomatic agents. The internuncios, or residents, constitute a third class.

III. Apostolic vicars are appointed in default of episcopal superintendence, cum potestate legati a latere, either absolutely, or where such jurisdiction has been interrupted by desuetude or dissolution of the chapter. They are nominated on the ground of the pope's general right of supervision, or a lapsed right of appointment.

Such is the old but still existing constitution of the higher

* Permanent nuncioships were established at Vienna in 1581; Cologne, 1582; Lucerne, 1586; Brussels, 1597; and Munich in 1785. For the disputes connected with the history of this last, and for some particulars of the others, consult Pfister, IV. 372.

grades of the Roman hierarchy, as we collect from the work The time has been when the world's wealth and the world's power were more absolutely within the control of these Papal councils than they ever will be again; but, unlike most of the powers which have ruled the earth, the Roman administration has outlived its own spiritual empire. In spite of all adversities,-the hostility of the schismatic, and the contumely of princes still professing fidelity to the church— these institutions have retained a hold upon the majority of the Christian world, which, by their alliance with new secular elements, may destine them to act no unimportant part in the changes of the time.

ARTICLE II.

1. The City of the Czar. By THOMAS RAIKES, Esq. London: Bentley. 1838.

2. Recollections of a Tour in the North of Europe. By the MARQUIS OF LONDONDERRY. London: Bentley. 3. Erinnerung's Skizzen aus Russland, der Turkei, und Griechenland. Vom LEGATIONSRATH TIETZ. Coburg: 1836.

4. Sketches of Petersburg, by a Prussian Counsellor of Legation. London: 1836.

Among all the disturbances which agitate Europe, and all the doctrines which shake the social edifice, Russia alone has remained strong and intact. Believe me, gentlemen, that it is a real blessing to belong to this country."-Nicholas's Speech to the Municipality of Warsaw.

OUR readers have been accustomed to discussions so much more grave and important upon the subject of Russia and its present rulers and history, that perhaps we ought to make them an apology for bringing the above-mentioned volumes to their notice. Court-gossip and pictures of society form their chief contents: each of the writers pretends, to be sure, to some little smattering of political knowledge, and cach is VOL. VIII.-No XV,

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more or less a partisan of the powers that at present be in Russia; but as their amount of political information is not extraordinary, and their views are by no means profound, we shall leave our three authors in the quiet enjoyment of their opinions, and not trouble the reader with a single word by way of exposition or answer. However, to do them justice, their politics are only occasional, and their main object is to describe society as they have seen it in Russia, and retail the anecdotes they have heard. The two writers first named have had more than common opportunities to gain this kind of information, and we propose to follow them through their narratives. Such memoirs on such subjects do not indeed hold a very dignified rank in history; but they are often amusing, and sometimes useful. They may be called the Apocrypha of the historical collection, which the world "read"eth for example of life and instruction of manners, and yet "doth not apply to establish any doctrine."

The first and by far the most meritorious publication in our list is that of Mr. Thomas Raikes, whose travels are dated some nine years back, but who has only within the last few months submitted his work to the public. We have however the testimony of his companions, that the manners described by him have very little changed since the period of his visit to St. Petersburg, and can recommend his volume as one of the most amusing of the kind that we have ever read. His work forms a good pendant to Wraxall's tour, performed forty years ago. Mr. Raikes is a diligent gatherer of anecdote and repeater of bons mots, a keen and goodhumoured observer, pleasant, gentleman-like, and easy in his style of imparting information; a tory in politics, but a tory of a very mild and polite caste. His work is the more agreeable, because his manner is so unpretending; and his descriptions are real and life-like, as all such descriptions must be when written easily and on the spot. Perhaps such sketches give us clearer notions of men and manners, than we could gain from studying the orthodox quartos of historians; just as the loose scraps in an artist's portfolio are often more true to nature than the pompous, exaggerated, soi-disant historical picture which flares on the walls of the Academy.

We recollect, in the curious collection of drawings belonging to the famous ventriloquist M. Alexandre, to have seen a sketch by no less a personage than the Emperor Nicholas : and what was the graceful subject which employed the imperial pencil? The reader may guess without much trouble,a grenadier. He draws grenadiers, thinks grenadiers, has a grenadier government, and has created a grenadier society. Alexander's coachman is pensioned off with the rank of colonel; the clerks in the government offices are ensigns, and the employés captains, colonels, generals, according to their grade. "A lady in good society," says Mr. Raikes, "of whom you "were to ask, to what profession she intended her son, "would laugh in your face." She is the mother of a future grenadier; her ideas have no further range; and beyond a pair of epaulets does not mount her highest ambition. It is easy to imagine how such a system as this will operate while it lasts; how much unity of purpose, and concentration of strength, will result from it; how much bravery and loyalty it will inspire. These are the grenadier virtues; and Nicholas a grenadier god for his time, the master of hope and fear, disgrace and honour, worshiped as many such a despotic divinity has been before him. We shall see presently how some strangers have been converted to him, how Lord Londonderry falls down on his knees before him, and Tietz, sccretary of legation, licks the dust from his shoes. Mr. Raikes, in his admiration of the Czar, goes not much further than to say that the man has personal courage, which we will not deny him; that he is amazingly active, fond of his family, generous, and has often good impulses. He may have all these qualities, and be the most ruthless tyrant living. Let us concede to him, for the present, the possession of his good qualities, and not even attempt to point out what is evil.

And as he is not nearly so enthusiastic as his brother-authors with regard to the emperor, Mr. Raikes in like manner is much more chary of his praises of the capital. "It is situ"ated," says he, "on one of the most desolate and uninha"bited quarters of the globe. It is seated on a wilderness, "founded on a marsh, and exposed to a climate which for one "half of the year renders existence itself intolerable."-"Won"derful as the construction of the city has been," he writes