ate of lime, which being crys
the reflection of the light, a hars
Soon it expands more, and passes a
considerable dimensions. Here at leas
rewarded: our eyes were grea
of stalactites, hanging in re
and running in ridges the Like

sides. The whole surface of ther

EXTRAORDINARY PROPERTY OF SHADows.

545

An eminent living geometer has proved by that in the centre of the shadow of a small circucalculations, founded on strict optical principles, beam of light emanating from a very small brillar plate of metal, exposed in a dark room to a shadow at that place; but, on the contrary, a liant point, there ought to be no darkness-in fact, degree of illumination precisely as bright as if the metal plate were away. Strange and even impossible as this conclusion may seem, it has been put to trial, and found to be perfectly

no

bles on the floor, are covered who
white in some parts, and brown in
an appearance truly bear. The
reigns in this deep part of the cavern,
with the thought that we are se
living world above by such depth of salt
duces a peculiarly solemn impression on t
while the reverberation of our voices, reTA,
our own ears in greatly magnifed notes, a
very singular sensation.

C

Passing still onward, the passage many yards, of various dimensions, ux crawled along, a pleasant sound as ci fin fell upon our ears; and, indeed, we some

correct.

MINERALS IN THE UNITED STATES.

In a previous part of this volume,

we

cavern larger than either of those we hade gave a portion of a report of a Geological Explo-
the side of which, issues a living sigration of the territory of Iowa, by David Dale
which, like the one we followed. Last Owen. In addition to the valuable information
relative to a particular district of our Union, con-
from the surface of the earth, and
tained in that report, we add the following con-
ravine, in a perfect sheet, like a cas
cerning the mineral products of the United
ture. This cavern was more beautiful
mer. Its sparry roof and walls, and is

either the whole or a part of the area of 30 coun-
ties out of the 54 in the state, and the wide range
and great thickness of many of the coal seams;
in the character of the mineral itself, showing
and when we contemplate the amazing variety
thracite, fitting it thus for every possible adapta-
every known gradation from cannel coal to an-
attention to the geological and topographical
tion in the arts or as a fuel, and then turn our
to their most secluded districts, we behold such
structure of the regions, affording a ready access
inspire exultation.
a prodigality of happy circumstances as may well
It is estimated that the an-

thracite coal conveyed to market from our mines
in the course of the last year (1837) has nearly
amounted to 900,000 tons; yet this large quanti-
ty sinks into insignificance when we look at
what the coal trade even in the next ten years is
destined to become. If we turn to the southern
anthracite basin, the present seat of the most ex-
tensive mining operations in the state, we behold

a mass of coal measuring nearly 60 miles in length and 2 in average breadth, having in the middle an aggregate thickness of good and available coal exceeding probably 100 feet! When we consider that from this basin and its branches above 730,000 tons have been sent to market in the course of the past year from six this coal has been taken from the strata above the water-level, below which hundreds, nay, thousands of feet of coal, following the dip of the same, lie still untouched, we are made aware of the enormous amount of undeveloped resources in this coal region."

bles, with the water reflecting in 4 States in general, taken from a work recently districts only, and when we reflect that nearly all our candles, and breaking the probe published, by Dr. Lee of New York city :—

which would otherwise prevail, prod altogether pleasant and more easily described. The rill makes its way throug to the creek, but cannot be followed twenty feet from this cascade, the war closed by large stones. At this poin

of prey. On starting to come out, or

COAL.

The coal strata have been observed as far north on this continent as human discovery has yet penetrated. At Melville island, in latitude 75°, where the summer lasts but a few weeks, Captain of impressions and casts of plants which bore a nearer the north pole, there is also an extensive vegetables.

found, indicating it to have been there Parry found in the coal formation an abundance of Pennsylvania, her bituminous coal region is was to make extensive depredations tropical aspect; and in Spitzbergen, which is still already stated that the great secondary deposite, owness of the passage prevented, a coal deposite, with the same remains of fossil and probably to the Rocky mountains, is in Penn

f

ed walls and roof, but the recollect urselves with taking one or two pieces more in length, which we brought o lling a bag with smaller pieces, wh Tong in the path before us, we e mouth of the cave, having been abse lf hours.

Nova Scotia affords bituminous coal of good quality; the quantity very great, if not inexhaustible.

Rhode Island has many localities which yield large quantities of coal. Those which have been

The bituminous coal-fields of Pennsylvania.Great and valuable as are the anthracite deposites still more extensive and inexhaustible. We have which extend from the Hudson to the Mississippi, sylvania limited by the Allegany mountains, which appear to form the barrier or dividing line between the anthracite and bituminous coal-beds, or between the secondary and transition formations. The union or junction of these formations is distinctly marked in the end of the mountain through it, above Bald Eagle, the latter resting against the former, and forming the basin in which the bituminous coal, in regular and successive strata, is deposited.

The whole distance we estimated explored are situated chiefly in Portsmouth, near where the west branch of the Susquehannah breaks -ed feet; the air was pure, and alth the northern extremity of the state.

Massachusetts.-Anthracite coal has been discovered at Worcester; vein 7 thick; operations for the present suspended. Mansfield has extensive formations of anthracite; and small quantities of bituminous coal have been found in the new red sandstone near West Springfield.

mp, our constant exercise kept up free d we sustained no injury, except the ived by our heads from the rocks dition to the well-known grandear e works of the Author of nature seen we have viewed another curiosity former, giving to the spot new eater variety. True, it is diffent of se who enter it, will be richiv p our: the lovers of adventure, bre

romantick a journey into the be
th; the mineralogist, by the rare
ecimens which he will add to his ca
HITESBOROUGH, July 5, 1836.

To enrich my mind and purify er ber
tongue still and my arm active; a
ly; this is all my ph

The coal-field, then, which is bounded on the south and east by the Allegany mountains, extends into Virginia and westward, so that bitumiAnthracite coal-fields of Pennsylvania.-No nous coal abounds to a greater or less extent in part of the world can boast of such inexhaustible all the western counties of Pennsylvania, with beds of anthracite as the state of Pennsylvania. the exception of Erie, in which it has not been To use the language of Prof. Rogers: "Embra- discovered. The counties of Bradford, Lycoming, cing a territory where the upper coal-bearing Tioga, Potter, McKean, Warren, Crawford, Bedrocks of the great ancient secondary basis of the ford, Huntingdon, and Centre, lie partly in and continent terminate toward the east and north, partly out of the coal-field. The counties of the revolutions which have stripped other states Allegany, Armstrong, Beaver, Butler, Cambria, of their treasures have left us in possession of Clearfield, Fayette, Greene, Indiana, Jefferson, some of the largest and most richly supplied coal- Mercer, Somerset, Venango, Washington, and fields of which any country can boast. When Westmoreland, are wholly within its range, and we regard their immense extent, comprising' embrace together an area of 21,000 square miles.

69

or 13,440,000 acres, while the anthracite coal districts have been computed to contain but 624,000 acres.*

Its great abundance and cheapness have indeed given birth to the vast and widely-extended manufacturing establishments of the west. Without coal they could not exist. It thus constitutes the life-spring of western Pennsylvania, and the pedestal of her great manufacturing emporium, Pittsburgh. This city alone and its environs, in 1835, contained 120 steam-engines for the various manufactures of iron, steel, glass, cotton, salt, brass, white lead, flour, oil, leather, &c. These engines consume annually nearly 3,000,000 bushels of coal.

south and eastern part of the state of Ohio was one magnificent coal-field, we believe we should not vary far from the truth.

Kentucky.-About a mile from the Cumberland river, in Adair county in boring for salt water, a bed of coal 45 feet thick was struck thirty feet below the surface, and at 150 feet beneath the coal a vein of salt water was reached, into which the auger dropped, and immense quantities of gas were discharged for a number of days. Indeed, coal and salt water may be said to abound from the heads of the Cumberland river to the beads of the Licking, occupying the whole of the northern and eastern borders of the state of Kentucky. West of this line iron ore is abundant.

Tennessee. The coal of Tennessee is generally bituminous and of an excellent quality, burning freely, with much smoke and a white bright flame, furnishing a good coke, and containing about seventy per cent. of carbon.

The coal consumed for every purpose in and about Pittsburgh has been estimated at 7,665,000 bushels, or 255,500 tuns. At four cents a bushel, the price now paid in Pittsburgh, it would amount to $306,512. Beside this, great quantities are shipped to Cincinnati, New Orleans, and the in- Other coal-fields of the United States.--We have termediate places, where it is sold for from five thus briefly described the most important coalto ten dollars a tun. Large quantities of it are fields of our country which have as yet been exalso consumed in the western counties of Penn- plored: there are known to exist numerous sylvania in the manufacture of salt, as there are others, which at no distant day will probably rise more than 100 salt manufacturing establishments to an equal degree of importance. Such are in that region, and many others going into opera- those of Illinois, Alabama, Mississippi, and tion, which produce annually more than 1,000,000 bushels of salt, and consume 5,000,000 bushels of coal. The total amount of anthracite and bituminous coal at present derived from the coal beds of Pennsylvania cannot fall much short 2,000,000* tuns annually; being about one twelfth as much as the total annual product of all the coalfields of Great Britain, nearly half as great as that of all the rest of Europe, and about equal to that of France.

Indiana, some of which are already worked to a considerable extent, especially on the Wabash. We have, however, stated enough to satisfy the reader that nature has been most lavish in her distribution of this valuable mineral over the surface of our country, and in those very places, too, where it would seem to be most needed; and that no country on the globe can boast an equal amount of coal deposites with the United States of America.

IRON

Coal-fields of Maryland.-These are bituminous, and, so far as discovered, two in number, viz, the Cumberland field, extending from Will's creek to the head branch of the Potomac, being is found in several states, m great abundance, about 60 miles in length by from 5 to 7 in width, and of good quality. Maine, New Hampshire, covering an area of 400 sq. miles; the coal exist- Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva ing in beds of from three to fifteen feet thick, of nia, and Ohio, have extensive formations, and ic an excellent quality, burning easily, with a bright inexhaustible quantities. and durable flame, caking, and leaving little residue. The other, called the Youghiogeny field, lies west of the Allegany ridge, is of unknown extent, and has beds of coal 20 feet in thickness.

Virginia abounds in both anthracite and bituminous coals. It is a remarkable fact, that nearly all the coal-beds of this country, like those of England, are associated with iron ore, as if on purpose for its reduction.

Besides coal and iron, Virginia contains gold, copper, lead, salt, limestone, marls, gypsum, magnesian, copperas, and alum earths; thermal, chalybeate, and sulphuretted springs; excellent marbles, granites, soapstones, sandstones, &c.

Ohio. Were we to state that the whole of the

Iron Ore in Maine.-In the state of Maine the ores of iron are valuable and abundant; and at Woodstock, in the northern part of the state, bordering on the British provinces, there is one of the most extensive veins of this metal ever discovered. Dr. Jackson states that it is nearly 900 feet wide, and runs through an unknown extent of country. The ore is the compact red hematite, and yields 44 per cent. of pure metallic iron, and 50 per cent. of cast iron. By a simple calculation, it can be shown that, as a cubic foot of the ore weighs 200 lbs. if the bed were wrought to the depth of 100 feet, and 500 feet in length, it would yield 45,000,000 cubic feet of ore. A vein of magnetic iron ore exists on Marshall's island, about three feet wide; and on the Aroostook river is a bed of red hematic iron of the best quality, 36 feet wide, and of immense and unknown length.

Iron ore of New York.-The state of New York also furnishes an abundance of this useful metal. In Columbia and Dutchess counties the mines are numerous and easily worked, and free

from water. These beds yield annually about two feet wide penetrates a ledge of rocks fifty 20,000 tuns of ore, which is worth at the spot feet high, and extends to an unknown depth. from $1.50 to $2.50 per tun. Within twelve miles of Amenia there are ten furnaces, which make 10,000 tuns of iron per annum, and afford employment to 1,000 men. There are several other furnaces in Columbia and Dutchess counties; and the aggregate value of the pig iron made at them all is estimated at $500,000 per annum. Much of this iron, especially that made from the bed in Amenia, which yields 5,000 tuns of ore per annum, is said to equal that from Salisbury. Much of the ore in these counties lies in a tertiary formation, under a deposite of pebbles, gravel, and loam, and frequently, as at Amenia, at the junction of talcose slate and limestone.

Some idea may be formed of the immense quantity of iron in this region, when we state that at Newcomb, a few miles from the Hudson river, a bed has been traced more than a mile in length, and 300 feet in width; and about a mile north is another bed, 500 feet wide, which extends nearly a mile, and of an unknown depth.

One of the most extensive deposites of lead on the globe exists in what is called the mineral district of Missouri, which comprises parts of the counties of Washington, St. Genevieve, Jefferson, St. Francis, and Madison; extending a distance of about 70 miles in length, and from the Mississippi, in a southwesterly direction, about 50 miles in breadth. Beside a great abundance of lead, this region contains also iron, manganese, zinc, antimony, arsenic, plumbago, &c. The lead ore is the galena or sulphuret of lead. It is found in loose detached masses in the soil, and not in veins, in rocks, as it usually occurs, and yields about 70 per cent. pure lead, and an annual product of several millions of pounds.

The total amount of lead from the United States lead-mines in Missouri, from 1825 to 1832, was 5,151,252 lbs.; and from 1821 to 1836, the product of the lead mines of Fever river amounted to 70,420,357 lbs. ; giving a total from both these sources of 75,571,609 lbs.

COPPER.

Copper is found in many places in this country,

In 1810, the quantity of bar iron made in the United States was 29,000 tuns; in 1830, 112,860 tuns, and also 191,536 tuns of pig iron, of the value of $13,329,760. In 1810, the total value of our iron manufactures was estimated at in connexion with lead and zinc, as at the $14,364,526. At present At present it exceeds probably $50,000,000, as there is not only a vast increase in the amount of the articles produced, but many new branches of manufacture have been introduced within the last few years.

GOLD.

Perkiomen lead-mine (Pennsylvania); Schuyler's mines (New Jersey), Cheshire and Wethersfield (Connecticut), Singsing (New York), &c.; but, as the quantity is too small to be worked in many places to advantage, we pass it by. The same remarks will also apply to silver ore, a small quantity of which is contained in nearly all our lead ores.

MANGANESE

The gold region of the United States may properly be said to extend from the Rappahannock, in Virginia, to the Coosa in Alabama. Gold has, however, been found in Lower Canada, Ver- occurs frequently in the form of an earthy oxyde, mont, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, and it is therefore resembling bog-iron ore, and is employed ex supposed by some that the gold deposites follow tensively in furnishing oxymuriatic acid for the primitive formation from Canada to the gulf bleaching, communicating a violet or purple color of Mexico. At Somerset, in Vermont, Professor to glass, in painting porcelain, and furnishing Hitchcock thinks there is every indication of a oxygen gas. It has not heretofore been in great gold region, and that it probably extends south demand, but there is no doubt it exists in quantiinto Massachusetts, as it has been discovered at ty sufficient to supply the wants of the country.

Deerfield.

PEAT.

Owing to the abundance of other kinds of fuel, peat has not yet been brought into extensive use, although it exists in inexhaustible quantities in many parts of the United States. Peat is derived from the vegetable fibres of partially decayed plants, or from decayed wood, which is called ligneous peat, though this is inferior to the other. The best peat lies at a depth of three or four feet, and frequently contains the trunks and branches of cedar and other durable kinds of wood, which have undergone little change. Though peat abounds in cold and wet regions, it is rarely found in warm climates, because vegetable decomposition is there too rapid to allow of the preservation of organic matter.

There are indications of a rich deposite of copper near Rossie, St. Lawrence county, New York.

It is unnecessary to mention localitics where | citizens generally, and of the different insurance this substance is found. Professor Hitchcock companies in particular, to be turned to the subestimates, that in the eastern part of Massachu-ject of adopting more efficient means for extinsetts 80,000 acres, or 125 square miles, are covered with it, being an average thickness of guishing fires, than the city possessed. The unsix feet four inches. This would yield at least tiring efforts of the well-organized and efficient 121,000,000 of cords. Professor Mather remarks, fire department, seemed insufficient to perform that "peat is so common in every part of the the arduous duties required of them, and general first geological district (of New York, embracing alarm pervaded the community. At this juncthe southern part) that it may be found on almost every square mile. The value of peat-grounds is not yet fully appreciated; but when this combustible shall come into use, as it soon will, owners of those peat-lands which are convenient to a market must realize a large amount; and it should be remembered that these grounds, when dug once, are not exhausted, like a coal-mine, but in a few years, if properly managed, will be renovated, and afford a new supply. A peat meadow, with a thickness of only three feet, will give more than 1,000 cords per acre. This combustible may be furnished at so low a rate that the poor may have an abundance of fuel. The odor of peat is unpleasant to some persons, but not more so than that of bituminous coal. Peat is usually cut out in pieces like bricks, by a kind of spade with a raised edge on one side, and is then dried like unbaked bricks, and afterward stacked or housed for use."

Every swamp contains either peat or a vast amount of vegetable matter which may be usefully employed in agriculture. It may also be employed for producing gas-light, as in France. Peat is often used for manure, after rotting it with lime in the barn-yard or compost heap. Peat is not confined to fresh-water lakes and marshes, but also abounds in those which are salt. Mather estimates that the first geological district of New York contains at least 3,000,000 cords of peat, some of which has as great a specific gravity as bituminous coal, and is nearly or quite as valuable for fuel.

"Perhaps it would be saying too much," says Prof. Emmons, "to assert that peat is more valuable than coal; but when we consider that it contains a gaseous matter equal in illuminating power to oil or coal-gas, that its production is equally cheap, and, in addition to this, that it is a valuable manure if properly prepared, its real and intrinsic worth cannot fall far short of the poorer kinds of coal. There is one consideration which commends itself to the philanthropic of all large cities, viz, the introduction of peat as a fuel to supply the necessities of the poor. It is believed that much suffering may be prevented, and much comfort promoted, by the use of peat in all places where fuel is expensive, as in New-York and Albany."

CAPT. ERICSSON'S STEAM FIRE-ENGINE.

THE alarming frequency and extent of conflagrations in the city of New York, during the winter of 1839-'40, caused the attention of the

ture, the Mechanic's Institute of that city very opportunely directed its efforts for the promotion. of the public good, by offering the gold medal of the Institute-the highest honor within its gift-as a reward for the best method of ap. plying steam to the fire-engine. Several plans were submitted, and, after a thorough and patient investigation of their several merits, by the Committee on Arts and Sciences, of the Institute, the token of excellence was awarded to Captain J. Ericsson, one of the most celebrated of European engineers, who is now on a visit to this country. Of this engine, the committee in their printed report remark:

The points of excellence as thus narrowed down were found to belong in a superior degree to an engine weighing less than 24 tuns, that with the lowest estimated speed has a power of 108 men, and will throw 3,000 lbs. of water per minute to a height of 105 feet, through a nozzle of 12 inches diameter. By increasing the speed to the greatest limit easily and safely attainable, the quantity of water thrown may be much augment

ed.

In the American Repertory of Arts for October, the report of the committee appears at length, from which we copy the following detailed description of the engine:—

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING.

of the boiler, steam-engine, pump, air-vessel, and FIGURE 1-Represents a longitudinal section blowing apparatus, through the centre line.

FIGURE 2-Side view of the steam fire-engine complete.

FIGURE 3-Plan or top view of the engine: airvessel, slide-box of steam-cylinder and inductionpipe supposed to be removed.

FIGURE 4-Transverse section of the boiler, through the furnace and steam-chamber. FIGURE 5-Lever or handle for working the blowing apparatus by manual labor.

Similar letters of reference will be used to de note similar parts in all of the figures.

A.-Double acting force-pump, cast of gunmetal, firmly secured to the carriage frame by four strong brackets cast.-a, a. Suction-valves.a', a'. Suction passages leading to the cylinder. a". Chamber containing the suction-valves, and to which chamber are connected a", a". Suction pipes to which the hose is attached by screws it the usual manner, and which may be closed by the ordinary screw cap. The delivering valves and passages at the top of the cylinder are similar