10. To invent, to discover. We invent things that are new; we dis cover what was before hidden. Galileo invented the telescope; Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood.

11. Only, alone. Only, imports that there is no other of the same kind; alone, imports being accompanied by no other. An only child, is one who has neither brother nor sister; a child alone, is one who is left by itself. There is a difference, therefore, in precise language, betwixt these two phrases, "virtue only makes us happy ;" and, "virtue alone makes us happy." Virtue only makes us happy, imports, that nothing else can do it. Virtue alone makes us happy, imports, that virtue, by itself, or unaccompanied with other advantages, is sufficient to do it. (Corol. Art. 150.)

12. Entire, complete. A thing is entire, by wanting none of its parts; complete, by wanting none of the appendages that belong to it. A man may have an entire house to himself; and yet not have one complete apartment.

13. Tranquillity, peace, calm. Tranquillity respects a situation free from trouble, considered in itself; peace, the same situation with respect to any causes that might interrupt it; calm, with regard to a disturbed situation going before, or following it. A good man enjoys tranquillity, in himself; peace, with others; and calm, after the

storm.

14. A difficulty, an obstacle. A difficulty, embarrasses; an obstacle, stops us. We remove the one; we surmount the other. Generally, the first expresses somewhat arising from the nature and circumstances of the affair; the second, somewhat arising from a foreign cause. Philip found difficulty in managing the Athenians, from the nature of their dispositions; but the eloquence of Demosthenes was the greatest obstacle to his designs.

15. Wisdom, prudence. Wisdom, leads us to speak and act what is most proper. Prudence, prevents our speaking or acting improperly. A wise man, employs the most proper means for success; a prudent man, the safest means for not being brought into danger.

16. Enough, sufficient. Enough, relates to the quantity which one wishes to have of any thing; sufficient, relates to the use that is to be made of it. Hence, enough, generally imports a greater quantity than suficient does. The covetous man never has enough; although he has what is sufficient for nature. (§ VII. p. 70.)

To

17. To avow, to acknowledge, to confess. Each of these words imports the affirmation of a fact, but in very different circumstances. avow, supposes the person to glory in it; to acknowledge, supposes a small degree of faul iness, which the acknowledgment compensates; to confess, supposes a higher degree of crime. A patriot avows his opposition to a bad minister, and is applauded; a gentleman acknowledges his mistake, and is forgiven; a prisoner confesses the crime he is accused of, and is punished.

18. To remark, to observe. We remark, in the way of attention, in order to remember; we observe, in the way of examination, in order to judge. A traveller remarks the most striking objects he sees; a general observes all the motions of his enemy. (§ I. p. 69.)

19. Equivocal, ambiguous. An equivocal expression is one which has one sense open, and designed to be understood; another sense

concealed, and understood only by the person who uses it. An ambiguous expression, is one which has apparently two senses, and leaves us at a loss which of them to give it. An equivocal expression, is used with an intention to deceive; an ambiguous one, when it is used with design, is with an intention not to give full information. An honest man will never employ an equivocal expression; a confused man may often utter ambiguous ones, without any design. I shall give only one instance more. (Art. 113.)

20. With, by. Both these particles express the connexion between some instrument, or means of effecting an end, and the agent who employs it; but with, expresses a more close and immediate connexion; by a more remote one. We kill a man with a sword; he died by violence. The criminal is bound with ropes by the executioner.

The proper distinction in the use of these particles, is elegantly marked in a passage of Dr. Robertson's History of Scotland. When one of the old Scottish kings was making an inquiry into the tenure by which his nobles held their lands, they started up, and drew their swords: "By these," said they, "we acquired our lands, and with these we will defend them."-" By these we acquired our lands," signifies the more remote means of acquisition by force and martial deed; and," with these we will defend them," signifies the immediate direct instrument, the sword, which they would employ in their defence. (§ VIII. p. 70.)

Obs. These are instances of words in our language, which, by careless writers, are apt to be employed as perfectly synonymous, and yet are not so. Their significations approach, but are not precisely the same. The more the distinction in the meaning of such words is weighed, and attended to, the more clearly and forcibly shall we speak or write.*

* The Abbe Girard's Synonymes Francoises, contains a large collection of such apparent synonymes in the language. The Abbe shows, with much accuracy, the difference in their signification. Nothing would contribute more to precise and elegant writing, than attention to the force of words, and to the several distinctions betwixt terms accounted synonymous in our own language.

BOOK III.

ON THE NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF SEN

TENCES, THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF

125. HITHERTO we have investigated the nature of words detached and unconnected, in the same manner as an architect selects and prepares the materials of an edifice. We are now, like the same artist, to delineate the plan of execution, or to point out the most proper conjunction and adaptation of the materials to accomplish the end in view.

Obs. As the best materials for building will not form a convenient and elegant habitation, unless they are adjusted on a proper plan, so the purest and best chosen words will not constitute a perspicuous and beautiful sentence, unless they are properly arranged. But before we take up this branch of the subject, it is requisite to premise some ob servations on the nature of sentences and periods, and to unfold the principles which should regulate their composition. (§ IX. Cor. p. 69.)

126. The terms sentence and period are nearly synony. mous, both denoting the quality of words or members comprehended between two full points, in writing or printing; and conveying a complete sense of themselves, independent of the words that either precede or follow them. (Illus. 2. Art. 130. and 139.)

Illus. 1. Both the sentence and the period may consist of subdivisions, clauses, or members; which are commonly separated from one another; those more closely connected, by commas, those slightly, by semicolons.

more

2. In every sentence or period, there must be an agent, an action, and a subject on which the agent operates; that is, in the language of grammarians, there must be a nominative, a verb, and an accusative; as, "Cæsar amavit Juliam," ""Alexander conquered Darius ;" unless the verb be of the class called instransitive, which requires no subject to act upon, the action being exhausted on the agent; as, "Cicero declaimed."

127. If there be two classes of agents, actions, and subjects in the sentence, one class depending on the other, the sentence will consist of two members, which are commonly separated from one another by a comma. (Illus. 3. Art. 130. and 137.)

Illus. 1. "If Julius Cæsar had employed as much policy and cruelty as Augustus, he might have prevented the conspiracy formed against his life."

128. If there be three classes of agents, actions, and subjects, the sentence will consist of three members, separated by semicolons.

Ilus. "If Julius Cæsar had employed as much policy and cruelty as Augustus; if he had proscribed every suspicious person under his government; he might have prevented the conspiracy formed against his life."

129. If there be four classes of agents, actions, and subjects, the sentence will consist of four members, separated by semicolons.

Illus. "If Julius Cæsar had employed as much cruelty and policy as Augustus; if he had proscribed every suspicious person under his government; he might have prevented the conspiracy formed against his life; and he might have lived, like that Emperor, to old age, flattered, obeyed, and adored by the Roman people.'

Corol. Hence it is apparent, that though the presence of an agent, an action, and a subject, be requisite to constitute a member, yet they do not prohibit the attendance of explanatory words, particularly of adjectives or participles, which denote some quality or property of the agent or the subject. Accordingly, in the last member of the last example, "he might have lived, like that Emperor, to old age, flattered, obeyed, and adored by the Roman people;" the participles flattered, obeyed, adored, encroach not on the unity of the member, but tend merely to modify or illustrate its principal parts. (See Illus. 2. Art. 119.)

130. When a sentence contains one member only, it is called simple; when it contains more members than one, it is called complex; when it contains three, four, or more members, it generally takes the name of period. (Art. 139.)

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Illus. 1. The ancient rhetoricians applied the name of period to all complex sentences, consisting of two or more members, but most frequently to those of four members. Habet," says Quinctilian, " periodus membra minimum duo. Medius numerus videtur quatuor, sed recipit frequenter et plura."

2. To the period, according to Cicero, were given the different names of ambitus, circuitus, comprehensio, continuatio, circumscriptio, which seem all to have been derived from the Greek appellation, περίοδος.

3. To simple sentences were given the names of commata, articuli, incise; the same names by which were denoted the members of peri

1

eds; because, perhaps, they coincided with them, in containing as agent, an action, and a subject.

131. SIMPLE SENTENCES are best adapted to express the controversial and reprehensive parts of an oration. The period is adapted to the more splendid and pathetic parts, particularly the introduction and the peroration.

132. A sentence is the smallest quantity of words which can express one entire proposition; that is, which can exhibit an agent as performing some action, or which can convey the affirmation of some truth. (Illus. 3. Art. 130.)

Illus. If, for example, the verb be intransitive, and be preceded by its nominative, a proposition will be expressed and a sentence will be formed; because an agent will be represented as performing an aetion, and a complete meaning will be communicated. "The sun ri⚫ ses;" ;""the morning lowers;" ;" "I eat, drink, walk," &c.

133. But if the verb be transitive, the nominative and the verb will not form a sentence, a proposition, or a complete sense; because a subject will be wanting, on which the action must be exerted.

Illus. 1. Thus the words, Cato killed, Cicero banished, exhibit inefficient actions, and incomplete senses. They leave the mind totally in suspense, till the subjects are subjoined on which the actions, killed, and banished, are exerted.

2. But if we say, Cato killed himself, Cicero banished Catiline, we present entire sentences, and communicate knowledge and informa-. tion.

3. Again, if I assert, "that the three angles of a triangle are equal to," I exhibit an incomplete proposition, or an imperfect affirmation, till I add the words," two right angles," which furnish an entire af firmation, and a perfect proposition.

Corol. Hence it appears that the essence of a sentence is, to convey one proposition, and one only; that it generally contains an agent, an action, and a subject, and must contain an agent, and an action. This constitutes what is called the unity of a sentence. (Art. 149.)

134. In constructing COMPLEX SENTENCES, which consist of different classes of agents, actions, and subjects, the unity will be preserved, and only one proposition, with all its circumstances, will be expressed, if such sentences, however complex, be properly composed. To accomplish this end, the different members of a simple sentence, or the different classes of agents, actions, and subjects, so depend on one another, that the sense is not fully communicated, till they are all properly arranged and conjoined. (Art. 133. Illus. 3.)

Illus. 1. The following member, for instance, " If virtue constitutes the supreme good," conveys no complete sense, and the hearer continues in suspense, till it is added, "all wise men will prefer it to