66

the " naves papyraceas armamentaque Nili," ships made of papyrus and the equipments of the Nile; and 1. xiii. c. 11, he observes, ex ipsa quidem papyro navigia texunt," of the papyrus itself they construct sailing vessels. Herodotus and Diodorus have recorded the same fact; and among the poets, Lucan, 1. iv. v. 136, "Conseritur bibula Memphitis cymba papyro," the Memphian or Egyptian boat is made of the thirsty papyrus; where the epithet "bibula" drinking, soaking, thirsty, is particularly remarkable, as corresponding with great exactness to the nature of the plant, and to its Hebrew name, which signifies to soak or drink up.

These vegetables require much water for their growth; when, therefore, the river on whose banks they grew, was reduced, they perished sooner than other plants. This explains Job, viii. 11, where the circumstance is referred to as an image of transient prosperity 59. See PAPER-REED.

BUSH.

χίνος

.SINAH סנה

This word occurs in Exod. iii. 2, 4; and Deut. xxxiii. 16, as the name of the bush in which GoD appeared to Moses. If it be the vos mentioned by Dioscorides, it is the white-thorn. Celsius calls it the rubus fructicosus. The number of these bushes in this region seems to have given the name to the mountain Sinai.

The word ' NEHELELIM, found only in Isai. vii. 19, and there rendered" bushes," means fruitful pastures.

CALAMUS.

KANEH.

Occ. Exod. xxx. 23; Cantic. iv. 14; Isai. xliii. 24; Jerem. vi. 20; and Ezek. xxvii. 19.

An aromatic reed, growing in moist places in Egypt, in Judea near lake Genezareth, and in several parts of Syria 60. It grows to about two feet in height; bearing from the root a knotted stalk, quite round, containing in its cavity a soft white pith. The whole is of an agreeable aromatic smell; and the plant is said to scent the air with a fragrance even while growing 61. When cut down, dried, and powdered, it makes an ingredient in the richest perfumes. It was used for this purpose by the Jews. See CANE.

CALF. OGEL. Arab. ADJEl.

The young of the ox kind. There is frequent mention in Scripture of calves, because they were made use of commonly in sacrifices. The "fatted calf," mentioned in several places, as in Sam. xxviii. 24, and Luke xv. 23, was stall fed, with special reference to a particular festival or extraordinary sacrifice. The

59 For a description of the plant, see Alpinus, de Plantis Ægypti, and Bruce's Travels, vol. 6.

60 Ben Melech, in his note upon Exodus xxx. 23, thus describes it, "Kaneh Bosem; aroma simile arundini, quod vulgo canellam vocamus, ita dicitur.” 61 Celsius, Hierobot. vol. ii. p. 327. Hiller, Hierophyt.

"calves of the lips," mentioned by Hosea, xiv. 2, signify the sacrifices of praise which the captives of Babylon addressed to GOD, being no longer in a condition to offer sacrifices in his temple. The Septuagint render it the " fruit of the lips;" and their reading is followed by the Syriac, and by the apostle to the Hebrews, ch. xiii. 15.

Jeremiah mentions a remarkable ceremony, ch. xxxiv. 18, 19, which I here refer to for the sake of explaining and of giving an amended version of the passage. Jehovah says, "I will give the men that have transgressed my covenant, who have not fulfilled the terms of the covenant which they made in the presence of the calf, which they cut in twain, and passed between the parts thereof; the princes of Judah, and the princes of Jerusalem, and the eunuchs, and the priests, and all the people of the land that passed between the parts of the calf, I will even give them into the hands of their enemies," &c. In order to ratify the covenant, they killed a calf, or young bullock, which they cut in two, and placing the two parts at some distance from each other, they passed between them; intending to signify by this rite that they consented to be served in like manner in case they violated their part of the covenant. Something of the like sort was in practice among the Greeks and Romans, as may be seen in Homer's Iliad, lib. iii. v. 298, and Livy's Roman history, l. i. c. 24, and 1. xxi. c. 45. Hence there will appear a peculiar force in the expression of entering into the covenant in presence of the calf, because the sight of that object served to remind them of the penalties they subjected themselves to on violating their engagement. We find GOD conforming himself to this usage when he made a covenant with Abraham, Gen. xv. 9, 10, 17, 18.

The "golden calf" was an idol set up and worshiped by the Israelites at the foot of Mount Sinai in their passage through the wilderness to the land of Canaan 63. Our version of the bible makes Aaron fashion this calf with a graving tool after he had cast it in a mould; and the Geneva translation, still worse, makes him engrave it first, and cast it afterwards. The word v cheret, occurs but four times in the bible. In Isai. viii. 1, its signification is in some measure fixed by the context; yet not so precisely as to exclude all doubt. In the Septuagint, it is rendered ygaidi; by Jerom, stylo, and by our English translators,

62 Bp. Blaney, new transl. of Jeremiah, p. 383, notes, edit. 8vo. I would add, that the punishment of violation, the being cut asunder, is referred to 2 Sam. xii. 31; 1 Chron. xx. 3; Dan. ii. 5, iii. 29; Story of Susanna, v. 55. 59; Matth. xxiv. 51; and Luke, xii. 46. See farther particulars in the note on Gen. xv. 10, in Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary.

63 The people said, " make us gods," Elohim—yet but one thing is made: and Aaron calls his calf, in the plural, " gods;"-" these are thy gods," "-" they who brought thee out of Egypt," &c. To this agree the words of St. Stephen, Acts, vii. 40, 41, "saying to Aaron, make us gods to go before us--and he made a calf." So that the plural form of Elohim does not imply plurality of persons.

pen. But Dr. Geddes supposes that it does not denote the instrument, but the form or character of the writing. In Isai. iii. 22, it is rendered "crisping pins;" by Purver, "pockets," and by Lowth and Dodson, "little purses." In 2 Kings, v. 23, the same word is in our common version rendered "bags," and by the Arabic and Greek, “baskets." From these places, therefore, we may infer, that it was not a style, but some vessel of capacity fit for the reception of something else. If we apply this to the passage in Exod. xxxii. 4, it will appear that the word must mean either the vessel in which the gold was melted, or the mould in which it was fashioned. Dr. Geddes learnedly supports the latter sense.

The method used by Moses for reducing the gold of which the calf was made to powder, has been variously explained. The learned M. Goguet gives this solution 6. "The Scripture says, Moses took the calf, burnt it, reduced it to powder, and afterwards mixed the powder with water, which he made the Israelites drink. Those who work in metals are not ignorant that, in general, this operation is very difficult. Moses probably had learned this secret in Egypt. The Scripture remarks expressly, that he had been brought up in all the wisdom of the Egyptians 66; that is to say, that Moses had been instructed in all the sciences which these people cultivated. I think then, that at that time, the Egyptians knew the art of performing this operation in gold; an operation, of which, however, it is necessary to show the process.

"The commentators are much troubled to explain the manner in which Moses burnt and reduced to powder the golden calf; the most of them have only given vain conjectures, and such as are absolutely void of all probability. An able chymist has removed all the difficulties that can be formed about this operation. The means which he thinks Moses used are very simple. Instead of tartar, which we use for such a process, the legislator of the Hebrews used natron, which is very common in the East, and particularly near the Nile. What the Scripture adds, that Moses made the Israelites drink this powder, proves that he knew very well the whole force of its operation. He would aggravate the punishment of their disobedience. One could not invent a way that would render them more sensible of it. Gold, made potable by the process which I have mentioned, is of a detestable taste."

But whether this chymical process was known to Moses is at least very doubtful. Onkelos and Bochart conjecture that the

64 Very improperly-for pens were not then used in writing; nor are they used at this day in those countries. Reeds supply their place. And in the days of Isaiah, the implement for writing was a stylus, or pin.

65 Origin of Laws, Arts, &c. vol. 2. p. 154.

66 Acts, vii. 22.

67 Stahll. Vitul. aureus, in Opusc. Chym. phys. med. p. 585.

mass of gold was reduced to powder by a rasp or file; but Dr. Adam Clarke furnishes the following explanation, which seems more practicable and more probable. "In Deut. ix. 21, this matter is fully explained. I took, says Moses, your sin, the calf which ye had made, and burnt it with fire; that is, melted it down probably into ingots, or gross plates; and stamped it, that is, beat it into thin laminæ, something like our gold leaf; and ground it very small, even until it was as small as dust, which might be very easily done by the action of the hands when beat into thin plates or leaves, as the original word n ecoth, and ▷↑ dak, imply. And I cast the dust thereof into the brook, and being thus lighter than the water, it would readily float, so that they could easily see, in this reduced and useless state, the idol to which they had lately offered divine honours, and from which they were vainly expecting protection and defence. No mode of argumentation could have served so forcibly to demonstrate the folly of their conduct as this method pursued by Moses."

The Hebrews, without doubt, upon this occasion, intended to imitate the worship of the god Apis, which they had seen in Egypt. In after times, Jeroboam having been acknowledged king by the ten tribes of Israel, and intending to separate them for ever from the house of David, thought fit to provide new gods for them, whom they might worship in their own country, without being obliged to go to the temple of Jerusalem, there to pay their adoration. 1 Kings, xii. 27-30. Monceau, in his "Aaron purgatus," thought that these golden calves were imitations of the cherubim, and that they occasioned rather a schismatic than an idolatrous worship: and it is confessed, that all Israel did not renounce the worship of Jehovah by adopting that of the golden calves, and by ceasing to go up to Jerusalem. Jehovah did not altogether abandon Israel; but sent them prophets, and preserved a great number of faithful worshippers, who either went privately to the temple at Jerusalem, as Tobit tells us he did, ch. i. 5; or worshiped GoD in their own houses. Nevertheless, the design of Jeroboam was to corrupt the people; and he is frequently reproached with having made Israel to sin; and when, at any time, the Scripture would describe a bad prince, it is by saying that he imitated Jeroboam, who introduced this idolatrous worship.

"It is well known," says Bp. Newcome 69, "that animals of this species were worshiped in Egypt; the Apis at Memphis, and the Mnevis at Heliopolis. As they were employed in tilling the ground, they may have been used as symbols of one who had anciently introduced or improved the art of agriculture. Males of this kind were dedicated to Osiris, and females to Isis. The

68 An Egyptian deity worshiped in the form of a bull. See Philo, de Vita Mosis, p. 667, and Selden de Diis Syris. Synt. 1, c. 4.

69 Note on Hosea, viii. 6.

Israelites may have originally borrowed this superstition from the Egyptians, and may have afterwards revived it; imputing the great fertility of Egypt to the deity thus represented."

The glory of Israel was their GoD, their law, and their ark; but the adorers of the golden calves considered those idols as their glory. Hosea says, x. 5, "the priests thereof rejoiced on it for the glory thereof." And he exclaims to them in raillery, xiii. 2, "Ye who worship calves, come, sacrifice men!". Can there be any greater madness? Ye adore calves, and sacrifice men to Moloch! The Septuagint, however, gives this passage another meaning. "They say, we want calves, sacrifice men." We have no more calves to sacrifice, let us bring men for that purpose. But the Hebrew may be interpreted, "let them who would sacrifice, come and kiss the calves."

גי

Hosea foretold the destruction of these idols, viii. 5, 6. “Thy calf, O Samaria, hath cast thee off; mine anger is kindled against them. The calf of Samaria shall become as contemptible as spider's webs." The Assyrians, having taken Samaria, carried off the golden calves with their worshippers. The Hebrew word, translated "spider's webs," is difficult. The Septuagint translates it "is deceitful," or "mistaken;" Symmachus, "is inconstant," or "gone astray;" the Rabbins, "is as it were dust," saw-dust; the generality of interpreters, " is broken to pieces." Jerom was informed by his Hebrew master, that it signified spiders' webs, which float in the air and are soon dispersed.

CAMEL. GAMAL. In Chaldee it is called gamala; in ancient Arabic, gimel; and in modern diammel; in Greek καμηλος. naμλos. With very little variation, the name of this animal is retained in modern languages.

An animal very common in Arabia, Judea, and the neighbouring countries. It is often mentioned in Scripture, and reckoned among the most valuable property. 1 Chron. v. 21; Job, i. 3, &c.

This animal is distinguished from the dromedary by having two protuberances or bunches of thick matted hair on its back. Its height is six feet six inches. Its head is small; ears short; neck long, slender, and bending. Its hoofs are in part, but not thoroughly divided. The bottom of the foot is tough and pliant. The tail is long, and terminates in a tuft of considerable length. On the legs this animal has six callosities; four on the fore legs, and two on the hinder; besides another on the lower part of the breast. These are the parts on which it rests. Its hair is fine, soft and of considerable length; of a dusky reddish colour. Besides the same internal structure as other ruminating animals, the camel is furnished with an additional bag, which serves as a reservoir to contain a quantity of water till it becomes necessary to quench his thirst and macerate his food: at which time, by a simple contraction of certain muscles, he makes a part of this water ascend into his stomach, or even as high as the gullet.