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member what he has omitted. For this reafon we forbear to complain of the darknefs of feveral paffages, which might perhaps have been rendered more intelligible by the aid of a few additional notes. And indeed, when we reflect on the almoft Herculean labours of our tranflator, our fenfe of his deficiencies is converted into wonder at his fuccefs. He had to contend with all those complicated difficulties to which we alluded in the former part of this critique: in a word, with every difficulty that could arife from the obfcurities of a language which the Brahmans fpend their lives in ftudying, from a phyfiology blended with the fenfelefs jargon of fable, and from the confused and heterogeneous mixture of allegory and metaphyfics. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, the ftyle of his tranflation is neat, elegant, and vigorous. The notes are few, and entirely explanatory, but they are replete with judgment and taste, and difplay fuch an acquaintance with Indian manners and opinions, as could be the refult only of curiofity directed by good fenfe, and favoured by the moft propitious opportunities of obfervation. On the whole, he deferves a high rank among thofe illuftrious characters, whom neither the fplendour of wealth, nor the fyren voice of luxury, have rendered infenfible to the pleasures of the mind. By the judicious exercise of his talents on a fubject fo little understood, and by employing thofe hours in liberal pursuits which avarice might have devoted to the acquifition of new treasures, he has reflected the highest honour on the patronage of Mr. Haftings, who, whatever may be his political merits or demerits, is juftly entitled to our warmeft applaufe and gratititude for his endeavours to promote the study of Indian literature, and thus open a new and extenfive field of enquiry to his Countrymen. We cannot conclude thefe remarks without expreffing an earneft hope, that fuch examples may excite fucceeding adventurers to explore with diligence thofe hidden ftores of intellectual treasure which will engage the attention of the inquifitive philofopher in every age and climate, and furvive, perhaps, when the British dominion in India fhall have long ceased to exift, and when the fources which it once opened of wealth and power shall be loft even to remembrance. J_s.

ART. IV. Thoughts on the Mechanism of Societies. By the Marquis de Cafaux, Fellow of the Royal Society. Tranflated from the French (under the Infpection of the Author) by Parkyns MacMahon. 8vo. 55. Robinfons. 1786.

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N no refpect has the fagacity of political fpeculators been fo effectually baffled as on the fubject of national debt. Before the beginning of the prefent century, many had foretold, with all the confidence that felf-conceit, engrafted on ignorance, fo

The original, in French, may be had of Mr. Elmfley.

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naturally infpires, that before the national debt fhould have amounted to one tenth part of what it is at prefent, a national bankruptcy muft have enfued. The fame forebodings have been, from time to time, and ftill are repeated; and although experience has falfified the former predictions, it is found impoffible to prevent men from giving credit to furmifes, which to the common apprehenfions of mankind appear fo reafonable and wel! founded. Emboldened, however, by obferving the prefent profperous ftate of this nation, which exhibits as vet no unequivocal fymptoms of finking under the weight of that enormous debt, which when viewed at a diftance appeared fufficient at once to overwhelm it, fome fpeculators, more daring than the reft, have of late ventured to maintain opinions, directly the reverse of those maxims, which our forefathers deemed as certain as the fundamental axioms of geometry itself.

Among the boldeft of thefe innovators, we must rank the Marquis de Cafaux, Author of Thoughts on the Mechanifm of Societies, which might with equal propriety be entitled fpeculations on the effects of national debt, for that is the principal fubject treated in his volume. This gentleman ftrenuously maintains, that the national debt, if it has been in any manner pernicious, has proved, in other refpects, highly beneficial to the community-that it might with fafety be increafed to a fum much greater than its prefent amount-that the intereft can eafily be borne by the nation, becaufe, after the effect of funding any fum is over (which effect is only temporary, and beneficial to the ftate during the time of its operation), it becomes muil, fo that be it great, or be it fmall, the community are equally infenfiole of it; and that of all poffible political evils, the greateft to be feared, if it were likely to take place, would be the paying off the national debt.

Thefe are pofitions not lefs new than furprifing, and they are maintained by a variety of fubtle arguments, and ingenious hypothefes, that blunt the edge of any ridicule with which a reader might be difpofed to treat them. Every page of the prefent work, indeed, exhibits ftriking proofs of ingenuity; but we dare not bestow upon it the fame degree of applaufe on account of its judiciousness. Poffeffed of a lively imagination, and creative fancy, the Author has, on many occafions, found it an eafy matter to raise a beautiful fabric, with the flighteft materials, and on the most unftable foundations; and he knows fo well how to point out the defective parts of those works which oppofed his progrefs, that he finds no difficulty in clearing his way of all former obftructions. To fpeak teriously, this treatife is the performance of a man of a lively and penetrating genius, who at one glance fees the abfurdity of former fpeculators, and whofe mind forms combinations fo quickly, as to at

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low him to be hurried away by this plaftic faculty with a rapidity, that gives him no leifure to perceive defects in his own hypothefes, greater, perhaps, than many of thofe which he expofes with fuch irrefiftible force of argument.

Though we cannot, therefore, recommend this book as an initiatory treatife on the fcience of political economy, or as proper to be put in the hands of men of ordinary talents to direct their judgment on this branch of knowledge, yet we confider it as a valuable addition to former writings on the fubject. Perhaps the diffinguishing feature of modern compilations is an undue deference for authority; a fmooth and uninterefting developement of ideas that have been inculcated by men who have obtained a fort of dictatorial authority in the world of literature;and this ferves to lull the mind afleep, inftead of awaking the reafoning faculties. The work before us is admirably calculated to counteract this procedure. New thoughts are ftruck out in every page, and abfurdities which have been cherished for ages, are detected in every fection of the performance. To the man of genius, therefore, this will be a precious morfel; to the man of judgment it will afford a rich fund of fpeculation; and the animadverfions which thefe rapid touches will occafion, muft in many cafts lead to truths which would not otherwife have been adverted to.

To attempt an analyfis of a book which claims no merit in point of arrangement, would be ufelefs labour; yet it may be neceffary to give the reader a concife notion of the general principleswhich the Author endeavours to eftablifh in this work.-They are, that taxes impofed in any country, neceffarily and unavoidably raife the prices of the commodities taxed to the full amount, at leaft, of the fums laid upon them; and not only do they raife the price of the commodities taxed, but they in the fame proportion raife the price of all other commodities, grain and labour in particular being accounted fuch; but if the price of every thing a man has to fell be augmented in the fame proportion as the price of that he has to buy, he will then be precifely in the ftate he was in before the prices were raifed, and the effects of the tax from that moment become null. Hence, he argues, the effect of taxes within the country, to whatever amount they may be raifed, can rever be of very material confequence, or tend to clog the operations of induftry.

With regard to foreign commerce-If, in confequence of taxation, or otherwife, the price of goods at home is raised much higher than abroad, his opinion is, that fince you cannot afford to lower the price of your own goods in foreign markets, you will be under the neceffity of raifing the price of foreign goods as high as your own, and from the moment that this event takes place (and this he thinks muft neceffarily happen foon) the

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effects of the tax become alfo null; fo that, according to his hypothefis, whether we regard internal profperity or external commerce, it is a matter of very great indifference what the amount of taxes fhall be.

We must not stop to controvert thefe pofitions, nor to point out the fallacy of fome of the arguments brought to fupport them, as it does not properly fall within our province; and because we make no doubt but that we fhall foon have occafion to resume the subject, in reviewing the answers that may be expected from others, we fhali barely take notice of one striking fact that strongly militates against one of the fundamental principles here affumed: it is this; according to the Marquis's hypothefis (and he infifts upon it on innumerable occafions) the price of grain muft invariably be raised by all taxes in the fame proportion with other commodities; for, fays he, p. 249, to imagine it poffible to maintain, and endeavour feriously to maintain wheat at the fame price, while the taxes advance by 10 per cent. that of the products of industry, is to aim at the ruin of agriculture.' But is it not an undeniable fact, that the average price of wheat. in England is at this hour, when the nation pays by taxes the intereft of two hundred and forty-fix millions fterling, really lower than it was before one thilling of national debt was contracted? Whence comes it that fuch a ftriking exception to his general principle has not been fo much as adverted to?

We might likewife take notice of the abfurdity of fuppofing that without the national funds, no refources could be found for employing the capitals of thofe who are not capable of entering into active bufinefs, or not inclined to do it an argument which we were furprised to fee feriously infifted on by one fo clear fighted as the Marquis de Cafaux. We were equally furprised to find the Author arguing on the fuppofition, that if at any time the national revenue fhould exceed the national expenditure, and it should be refolved to preferve that furplus, fo as to have it at command on any future emergency, it would in that cafe be abfolutely neceflary to retain it in cash, and lock it up useless in ftrong chefts during all that time. As well might he fay, that a private perfon, who at any time accumulates a ftock, muft neceffarily bury the whole in a ftrong cheft, as that the public favings would of neceffity be thus preferved. It is evident that nothing but a defire to favour his hypothefis by every argument that could appear in any degree plaufible, fhould have induced him to infift on thefe heads, or to infinuate, as he on other occafions does, that a diminution of the legal intereft of money, fuppofing it to be brought about naturally, and without force, cold prove prejudicial to the interefts of the community. We were, for the fame reafon, furprised to find paper money in England, and credit, mentioned as two diftinct

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things, feeing they are in every effential circumftance the

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As a fpecimen of the Author's manner of reafoning, we shall felect a small part (for the whole would be too long for our fcanty limits) of what he fays on the balance of trade, a subject that has long been a favourite in this country; and which, efpecially fince Sir Charles Whitworth's Tables were published, has afforded matter for many calculations, that lead to conclufions exceedingly abfurd. On this fubject our fpirited Author ob

ferves:

When the proprietor of a confiderable fum in the English funds examines Sir Charles Whitworth's truly valuable State of the Trade of Great Britain, he thanks his ftars, and fays, "I have nothing to fear whilft the balance of trade continues in favour of this kingdom; but the moment it fhall turn against her, recourfe muft inevitably be had to the expedient fo long poftponed: the application of the fponge is inevitable."

And a little farther on he thus proceeds:

By means of that valuable work, I fee, from the year 1700 to 1775, ⚫ and that in the greatest detail, ftrengthened by all the proofs that the nature of the fubject can admit of, a conftant fuperiority of exports, which, in the fpace of 75 years, amounts to the enormous fum of 267,774,769 1. (I have overlooked the fractions of each article.) This is, in the total amount, much more than one half of the gold and filver imported into Europe from America, during the fame lapfe of time; but of this period of 75 years, 30 must be attended to, wherein the fuperiority of English exports, comes up very nearly to of the general importation of thofe two precious metals, which were to make good fo many other balances. We fhould alfo obferve, amongst thofe years, a moft flourishing one, wherein that English favour abforbs, as it were, all the filver imported into Europe; and five other years ftill more wonderful, where it furpaffes that general importation by 10, 12, and even 1300,000 l.; for in 1750 the general exportation of English goods exceeded the importation of foreign produce by 7,359,964. and yet all that product of the mines, belonging to Spain and Portugal, is eftimated only at 6,000,000 /. sterling per annum.'

In another place, treating on the fame fubject of the balance of trade, he says:

I begin, by afking whether there exifts a nation in Europe, which, upon perufing what Mr. Necker fays to the prefent purpofe, and the ufe made, almost generally, in England, of the work of Sir Charles Whitworth, much more explicit with regard to the balance of Great Britain, would hefitate an inftant to break off all commercial connections with England and France, if only one half should prove real in the prejudices of the two nations, on the object which at prefent feems to determine all the others?

I would, in the next place, propofe, for examination, whether thofe two nations are not indebted to thefe prejudices, for the greateft part of their mistakes, and of the obftacles which they have found, which they ftill find, and which they will ever find, in the measures Rev. April, 1787.

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