evolving their leaves; Flora received the still more watchful duty of sheltering their blossom; they passed to the guardianship of Lactantia when swelling with milky juices; Rubigo protected them from blight; and they successively became the care of Hostilina, as they shot into ears; of Matura as they ripened; and of Tutelina when they were reaped. Such creations of polytheism are fables; but they are errors that should even now give rise to feelings of gratification rather than of contempt. They must please by their elegance; and much more when we reflect that it is the concurrent testimony of anterior nations, through thousands of years, that they detected and acknowledged a Great First Cause.

Unlike the arts of luxury, Agriculture has never been subject to any retrograde revolutions; being an occupation necessary for the existence of mankind in any degree of comfort, it has always continued to receive their first attention; and no succeeding age has been more imperfect, but in general more expert, in the art than that which has preceded it. The Greeks are not an exception to this rule; for their agriculture appears to have been much the same in the earliest brief notices we have of them, as it was with the nation of which they were an off-set. The early Grecians, like all new nations, were divided into but two classes: landed proprietors, and Helots, or slaves; and the estates of the former were little larger than were sufficient to supply their respective households with necessaries. We read of princes among them; and as we dwell upon the splendid details of the Trojan war, associate with such titles, unreflectingly, all the pageantry and luxury of modern potentates, that are distinguished by similar titles. But in this we are decidedly wrong; for there was probably not a leader of the Greeks who did not, like the father of Ulysses, assist with his own hands in the farming operations. (Homer's Odyss. 1. xxiv.) Hesiod is the earliest writer who gives us any detail of the Grecian agriculture. He appears to have been the contemporary of Homer; and, in that case, to have flourished about nine centuries before the Christian era. His practical statements, however, are very meagre; we have, therefore, preferred taking Xenophon's Economics as our text, and introducing the statements of other authors, as they may occur, to supply deficiencies or to afford illustrations.

Xenophon died at the age of ninety, 359 years before the birth of Christ. The following narrative of the Greek agriculture is from his "Essay," if not otherwise specified. In Xenophon's time the landed pro

but had a steward as a general superintendant, and numerous labourers, yet he always advises the master to attend to his own affairs. "My servant," he says, "leads my horse into the fields, and I walk thither for the sake of exercise in a purer air; and when arrived where my workmen are planting trees, tilling the ground, and the like, I observe how every thing is performed, and study whether any of these operations may be improved." After his ride his servant took his horse, and led him home, "taking with him," he adds, "to my house, such things as are wanted, and I walk home, wash my hands, and dine off whatever is prepared for me moderately." "No man," he says, 66 can be a farmer till he is taught by experience; observation and instruction may do much, but practice teaches many particulars, which no master would ever have thought to remark upon." "Before we commence the cultivation of the soil," he observes, that "we should notice what crops flourish best upon it; and we may even learn from the weeds it produces, what it will best support."

"Fallowing, or frequent ploughing in spring or summer," he observes, "is of great advantage; " and Hesiod advises the farmer (Works and Days, 50.) always to be provided with a spare plough, that no accident may interrupt the operation. The same author directs the ploughman to be very careful in his work. "Let him," he says, "attend to his employment, and trace the furrows carefully in straight lines, not looking around him, having his mind intent upon what he is doing." (Ibid. 441-443.)

Theophrastus evidently thought that the soil could not be ploughed and stirred about too much, or unseasonably; for the object is to let the earth feel the cold of winter and the sun of summer, to invert the soil, and render it free, light, and clear of all weeds, so that it can most easily afford nourishment. cap. 2. 6.)

(De Causis Plant. lib. iii.

Xenophon recommends green plants to be ploughed in, and even crops to be raised for the purpose; "for such," he says, enrich the soil as much as dung." He also recommends earth that has been long under water to be put upon land to enrich it, upon a scientific principle which we shall explain under IRRIGATION. Theophrastus, who flourished in the fourth century B. C., is still more particular upon the subject of manures. He states his conviction that a proper mixture of soils, as clay with sand, and the contrary, would produce crops as luxuriant as could be effected by the agency of manures. He describes the properties that

render dungs beneficial to vegetation, and dwells upon composts. (Hist. of Plants, ii. cap. 8.) Xenophon recommends the stubble at reaping time to be left long, if the straw is abundant; "and this, if burned, will enrich the soil very much, or it may be cut and mixed with dung." "The time of soring," says Xenophon, "must be regulated by the season; and it is best to allow seed enough."

Weeds were carefully eradicated from among their crops; "for, besides the hindrance they are to corn, or other profitable plants, they keep the ground from receiving the benefit of a free exposure to the sun and air." Homer describes Laertes as hoeing, when found by his son Ulysses. (Odyss. xxiv. 226.)

Water-courses and ditches were made to drain away "the wet which is apt to do great damage to corn."

Homer describes the mode of threshing corn by the trampling of oxen (Iliad, xx. lin. 495, &c.); and to get the grain clear from the straw, Xenophon observes, "the men who have the care of the work take care to shake up the straw as they see occasion, flinging into the way of the cattle's feet such corn as they observe to remain in the straw." From Theophrastus and Xenophon combined, we can also very particularly make out that the Greeks separated the grain from the chaff by throwing it with a shovel against the wind.

III THE AGRICULTURE OF THE ROMANS.

It is certain, that at a very early age Italy received colonies from the Pelasgi and Arcadians; and that, consequently, with them the arts of Greece were introduced; and we may conclude that there was then a similarity in the practice of agriculture in the two countries.

About 753 years before the nativity of Christ, Romulus founded the city of Rome, whose inhabitants were destined to be the conquerors and the improvers of Europe. The Roman eagle was triumphant in Egypt, Persia, Greece, Carthage, and Macedon; and the warriors who bore it on to victory, in those and other countries, being all possessors of land of a larger or smaller extent, naturally introduced, upon their return, any superior vegetable, or improved mode of culture, which they observed in those highly civilised seats of their victories.

Thus the arts of Rome arrived at a degree of superiority that was the result of the accumulated improvements of other nations; and, finally, when Rome became in turn the conquered, the victors became acquainted

with this accumulated knowledge, and diffused it over the other parts of Europe.

Of the agriculture of the early Romans we know but little; but of its state during the period of their greatest prosperity and improvement, we fortunately have very full information. Cato in the second, and Varro in the first century before the Christian era, Virgil, at the period of that event, Columella and Pliny but few years subsequently, and Palladius in the second or fourth century, each wrote a work upon agriculture, which, with the exception of that by Columella, have come down to us entire.

From these various authorities we derive full information; and we are convinced that many of our readers will be surprised at the correct knowledge of the arts of cultivation possessed by that great nation.

2

4. The yoke for fixing the cattle. hook. 6. The scythe.

1, 2, 3, Ploughs used by the Romans in different ages. 5. The reaping

1. Size of the Roman Farms. When Romulus first partitioned the lands of the infant state among his followers, he assigned to no one more than he could cultivate. This was a space of only two acres. (Varro, i. 10.; Pliny, xvii. 11.) After the kings

were expelled, seven acres were allotted to each citizen. (Pliny, xviii. 3.) Cincinnatus, Curius Dentatus, Fabricius, Regulus, and others, distinguished as the most deserving of the Romans, had no larger estates than this. Cincinnatus, according to some authorities, possessed only four acres. (Ibid.; Columella, i. 3, &c.) On these limited spaces they dwelt, and cultivated them with their own hands. It was from the plough that Cincinnatus was summoned to be dictator (Livy, iii. 26.); and the Samnian ambassadors found Curius Dentatus cooking his own repast of vegetables in an earthern vessel. (Plutarch in vita Cato. Cens.)

Some of the noblest families in Rome derived their patronymic names from ancestors designated after some vegetable, in the cultivation of which they excelled, as in the examples of the Fabii, Pisones, Lentuli, Cicerones, and the like. (Pliny, xviii. 1.) In those days, "when they praised a good man, they called him an agriculturist and a good husbandman: he was thought to be very greatly honoured who was thus praised." (Cato, in Præf.) As the limits of the empire extended, and its wealth increased, the estates of the Roman proprietors became very greatly enlarged; and, as we shall see more particularly mentioned in our historical notices of gardening, attained to a value of 80,000l. (Plutarch in vit. Marius et Lucullus.) Such extensive proprietors let portions of their estates to other citizens, who, if they paid for them a certain rent, like our modern tenants, were called Coloni (Columella, i. 7.; Pliny, Epist. x. 24.) and Politores, or Partiarii, if they shared the produce in stated proportions with the proprietor. (Pliny, Epist. vii. 30., and ix. 37, &c.) Leases were occasionally granted, which appear to have been of longer duration than five years. (Ibid. ix. 37.)

2. Distinction of Soils.-Soils were characterised by six different qualities, and were described as rich or poor, free or stiff, wet or dry. (Colum. ii. 2.)

The best soil they thought had a blackish colour, was glutinous when wet, and friable when dry; exhaled an agreeable smell when ploughed, imbibed water readily, retaining a sufficiency, and discharging what was superfluous; not injurious to the plough irons by causing a salt rust; frequented by crows and rooks at the time of ploughing; and, when at rest, speedily covered with a rich turf. (Virg. Georg. ii. 203. 217. 238. 248.; Pliny, xvii. 5.)

Vines required a light soil, and corn a heavy, deep, and rich one. (Virg. Georg. ii. 29.; Cato, vi.)

3. Manures. The dung of animals was particularly esteemed by the Romans for

enriching their soil. "Study," says Cato, "to have a large dunghill." (Čato, v.) They assiduously collected it and stored it in covered pits, so as to check the escape of the drainage. (Colum. i. 6.; Pliny, xvii. 9., and xxiv. 19.) They sowed pulverised pigeons' dung and the like over their crops, and mixed it with the surface soil by means of the sarcle or hoe. (Colum. i. 16.; Cato, xxxvi.) They were aware of the benefit of mixing together earth of opposite qualities (Ibid.), and of sowing lupines and ploughing them in while green. (Varro, i. 23.) They burnt the stubble upon the ground, and even collected shrubs and the like for the similar purpose of enriching the soil with their ashes. (Virg. Georg. i. 84.; Pliny, xvii. 6. 25.)

Pliny also mentions that lime was employed as a fertiliser in Gaul, and marl in the same country and Britain; but we can only surmise thence that they were also probably employed by the Romans. (Pliny, xvii. 8., and xvii. 5.)

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4. Draining. The superfluous water of soils was carried off by means both of open and covered drains. (Colum. ii. 2. 8.; Pliny, xvii. c.; Virg. Georg. i. 109.) Cato is very particular in his directions for making them. (Cato, xliii. clx.)

5. Crops.-They cultivated wheat, spelt, barley, oats, flax, beans, pease, lupines, kidney-beans, lentils, tares, sesame, turnips, vines, olives, willows, and the like. To cite the authorities who mention each of these would be needless, for they are noticed in all the Roman writers upon agriculture. Of the relative importance or proportion in which the crops were profitable to the Romans, we have this judgment of Cato:-"If you can buy 100 acres of land in a very good situation, the vineyard is the first object if it yields much wine; in the second place, a well watered garden; in the third, a willow plantation; in the fourth, an olive ground; in the fifth, a meadow; in the sixth, corn ground; in the seventh, an underwood, a plantation yielding stout poles for training the vine; and in the ninth, a wood where mast grows." (Cato, i.)

They made hay, and the process appears to have been the same as in modern times. After being cut it was turned with forks, piled into conical heaps, and finally into stacks or under cover. But the mowing was imperfectly performed; for, as soon as the hay was removed from the field, the mowers had to go over it again. (Varro; Colum. ii. 22.)

6. Implements.-The plough consisted of several parts: the beam to which the yoke of the oxen was fastened; the tail or handle terminated in a cross bar, with which the

ploughman guided the instrument; it had a ploughshare, the share-beam to which it was fixed, and two mould-boards, a coulter, and a plough-staff for cleaning the ploughshare. (Ovid. Pont. i. 8.57.; Virg. G.i. 170.; Puny, xvii. 18, 19.) Some of their ploughs had wheels, and some were without coulters and earth-boards. Besides this, they had spades, rakes, hoes, with plain and with forked blades, harrows, mattocks, and similar implements.

7. Operations.-Ploughing was usually performed by two oxen, though three were sometimes employed. They were yoked abreast, and trained when young to the employment. (Cicero, in Verr. iii. 21.; Col. vi. 2. 10.; Pliny, xviii. 18.; Virg. G. iii. 163, &c.) They were usually yoked by the neck, but sometimes by the horns. (Pliny, viii. 45.; Colum. ii. 2.) There was but one man to a plough, which he guided, and managed the oxen with a goad. (Pliny, Epist. viii. 17.)

They sometimes ploughed in ridges, and sometimes not. They did not take a circuit when they came to the end of the field, as is our practice, but returned close to the furrow. They were very particular in drawing straight and equal sized furrows. (Pliny, xviii. 19. s. 49.)

They seem to have ploughed three times always before they sowed (Varro, i. 29.): and to stiff soils, even as many as nine ploughings were given. (Virg. G. i. 47.; Pliny, xviii. 20.; Pliny, Epist. v. 6.) The furrows in the first ploughing were usually nine inches deep. When the soil was only stirred about three inches, it was called scarification. (Pliny, xviii. 17-19.) They usually fallowed their land every other year. (Virg. G. i. 71.)

Sowing was performed by hand, from a basket; and that it might be performed regularly, the hand moved with the steps. (Colum. ii. 9.; Pliny, xviii. 24.) The seed was either scattered upon the land and covered by means of rakes and harrows, or more commonly by sowing it upon a plain surface, and covering by a shallow ploughing, which caused it to come up in rows, and facilitated the operation of hoeing. (Pliny, xviii. 20.) They were particular as to the time of sowing, the choice of seeds, and the quantity sown. (Varro, i. 44.; Pliny, xviii. 24. s. 55.; Virg. G. i. 193, &c.) Weeding was performed by hoes, hooks, and by hand.

In dry seasons the crops were watered. (Virg. G. i. 106.) If they appeared too luxuriant they were fed off. (Ibid. 193.)

Reaping and mowing were the usual modes of cutting down the corn crops, but the ears were sometimes taken off by a

toothed machine, called batilium, which seems to have been a wheeled cart, pushed by oxen through the corn, and catching the ears of corn between a row of teeth fixed to it, upon the principle of the modern daisy rake. In Gaul, the corn was cut down by a machine drawn by two horses. (Varro, i. 50.; Virg. G. i. 317.; Colum. ii. 21.; Pliny, xviii. 30.) They do not seem to have ever bound their corn into sheaves. (Colum. ii. 21.)

Threshing was performed by the trampling of oxen and horses, by flails, and by means of sledges drawn over the corn. (Pliny, xvii. 30.; Colum. ii. 21.; Virg. G. iii. 132.; Tibullus, i. 5. 22.; Varro, i. 52.) The threshing-floor was circular, placed near the house, on high ground, and exposed on all sides to the winds. It was highest in the centre, and paved with stones, or more usually with clay, mixed with the lees of the oil, and very carefully consolidated. (Colum. i. 6.; Varro, i. 2.; Virg. G. i. 178.; Cato, xci. and cxxix.)

Dressing was performed by means of a sieve or van, and by a shovel, with which it was thrown up and exposed to the wind. (Varro, i. 52.; Colum. ii. 21.) It was finally stored in granaries or in pits, where it would keep fifty years. (Pliny, xviii. 30.; Varro, i. 57.)

8. Animals.-Oxen, horses, asses, mules, sheep, goats, swine, hens, pigeons, pea-fowls, pheasants, geese, ducks, swans, guinea-fowls, and bees, are mentioned by various authors as products of the Roman farms. Directions for breeding many of these are given in the third and fourth books of the Georgics.

Such is an outline of the Roman agriculture; and in it our readers will doubtless find sufficient evidence to warrant them in agreeing with us, that it was but little different from that pursued by the present farmers of England. We are superior to them in our implements, and consequently in the facility of performing the operations of tillage; we perhaps have superior varieties of corn, but we most excel them in our rotation of crops, and in the management of stock. We differ from them, also, in not practising the superstitious rites and sacrifices which accompanied almost all their operations (see Cato, cxxxiv. c.); but of the fundamental practices of agriculture they were as fully aware as ourselves. No modern writer could lay down more correct and comprehensive axioms than Cato did in the following words; and whoever strictly obeys them will never be ranked among the ignorant of the art. "What is good tillage?" says this oldest of the Roman teachers of agriculture; "to plough. What is the