nerals, commander. After several skirmishes, wherein Abdallah's troops had the worst, most of Abdallah's friends, two of his sons, and 10,000 inhabitants of Mecca, deserted him. In this extremity he consulted with his mother, whether he should submit to the caliph or not; but she, being a high-spirited woman, the daughter of Abu Becr, the second caliph, advised him against it; whereupon, in a fit of despair, he plunged into the midst of his enemies without his usual coat of mail, and, after slaughtering great numbers of them, was killed. Al Hejaj cut off his head and fixed his body to a cross; which had a strong odor of musk for several days after, his mother having given him a draught in which a pound of musk was infused, to inspire him with courage. By the reduction of Mecca Abdalmalec was now sole master of the empire, but he suffered a great loss the next year, having an army of 100,000 men cut off by the Khazarians in Armenia. The governor, however, marched against them soon after at the head of 40,000 chosen troops, penetrated into the heart of Armenia, defeated a large body of them, and drove them into their temples, to which he set fire. One of his generals also defeated 80,000 Khazarians at the Caspian gates, killed a great number of them, and compelled the rest to turn Mahometans. Al Hejaj, for his services, was made governor of Medina, and then of Irak, Chorasan, and Sejestan, in all which places he behaved with the greatest cruelty, and yet he was continued in these governments till he died. In the seventy-sixth year of the Hegira Saleh Ebn Marj, and Shebib Ebn Seid, a Kharejite, rebelled against the caliph. Saleh was proclaimed emperor of the faithful at Daras in Mesopotamia. At first they were successful, and defeated even Al Hejaj himself; but at last were defeated and killed, and their troops slaughtered and dispersed. In the seventy-sixth year of the Hegira Abdalmalec erected the first mint in Arabia, and struck gold and silver coins. Before this period their dinars or gold coins had Greek inscriptions, and their dirhems or silver coins Persian. The caliph now struck dirhems with the Arabic words, Alla Samad, i. e. God is eternal, upon them; which offended some superstitious Mussulmans, who thought the name of God would thus be profaned by the touch of the unclean. In the seventy-seventh year of the Hegira, the Saracens made an incursion into the imperial territories, when Lazica and Bernucium were betrayed to them. In the seventy-eighth they over-ran Africa Proper, and demolished the city of Carthage. They were driven out by John the Patrician, but, returning with a superior force, they made John fly to Constantinople. In the year seventy-nine Abdalrahman rebelled in Persia; and drove the khan or emperor of the Turks, Tartars, and Moguls, out of that country; but in eighty, Heraclius, the Greek general, penetrated into Syria, as far as Samosata, killed 200,000 Saracens, and ravaged the country dreadfully. At last, after about eighty battles, or as some say 100, Abdalrahman was defeated and killed by Al Hejaj. In the eighty-third year of the Hegira the Armenian nobolity revolting, drove the Arabs out of that province; but Mahomet, a general

of the caliph's, entering it with a powerful army, got the authors of the revolt into his hands, and caused them to be burnt alive. The Saracens then invaded Cilicia, under one Azar, but were, to the number of 10,000 the one year, and 12,000 the next, cut in pieces by Heraclius, and the rest forced to fly. In the year eighty-six Abdalinalec died, after a reign of twenty-one years.

Abdalmalec was succeeded by his son Al Walid, who greatly extended the Saracen empire. In the first year of his reign one of his generals passed the Jihun, and defeated a numerous army of Turks and Tartars. He then over-ran and reduced Sogdiana, Bagrass, Shash, Targana, and the whole immense tract called Mawaralnahar, or Great Bukharia. He also conquered the khan of Khowarazm, and forced him to pay an annual tribute of 2,000,000 of dinars. Another of his generals, called Mahomet, made an irruption into India, and conquered a great part of that country. He also subdued the kingdom of Al Sind, between Persia and India; when Derar the king of it was defeated and killed, and had his head cut off by Mahomet. In the ninetieth year of the Hegira the Saracens made an irruption into Cappadocia, defeated the imperial army, and took the city of Tyana. In the two following years they repeated their incursions under Othman, took several cities, and carried off numbers of slaves. In the year ninetythree, or A. D. 712, Tarek Ebn Zarka, made a descent on Spain, defeated Roderick, the last king of the Goths, reduced Toledo, and over ran a great part of the kingdom. Being joined by Musa, commander of the African Moslems, they took most of the forts and subdued the whole country. In these expeditions they acquired immense spoils, particularly a very rich table, called Solomon's table, of gold, silver, and pearls, and standing on 365 feet. In ninety-four Tarick landed a body of 12,000 men at Gibraltar, with which he plundered Hispania Bætica, and great part of Lusitania. Roderick's troops being new raised were unable to resist these hardy invaders. Another Saracen general entered Pisidia, ravaged the country, and took Antioch. In the year ninety-five Hejaj died, after a cruel government of twenty years; during which period he killed 120,000 men, and suffered 50,000 men aud 30,000 women to perish in prisons. This year also the Saracens completely defeated Roderick king of the Goths, who was killed in the battle; and Tarif amassed immense riches. In the east these plunderers were equally successful. Moslema ravaged the whole province of Galatia, carrying off rich spoils, and many prisoners. But, while Al Walid was preparing to invade Constantinople, he died in the sixty-ninth year of the Hegira.

The caliph Al Walid was succeeded by his brother Soliman. This year the Saracen conquests on the east side were increased by the reduction of Tabrestan and Jurgon or Georgia. In Spain also the city of Toledo, which had revolted, was reduced, and Cæsar-Augusta, now Saragossa, as well as several others. The next year Moslema set out for Constantinople, which he besieged without success till the ninety-ninth year of the Hegira; when he was obliged to re

Al Abbas. The first of that house that made any considerable figure was named Mahomet, who flourished in the reign of Omar Ebn Abdalaziz. He was appointed chief of the house of Al Abbas, about the 100th year of the Hegira; and is said to have prophesied, that after his death, one of his sons named Ibrahim should preside over them till he was killed, and that his other son Abdallah, surnamed Abul Abbas Al Saffah, should be caliph, and exterminate the house of Ommiyah. Upon this Al Saffah was introduced as the future sovereign, and those present kissed his hands and feet. After the decease of Mahomet, his son Ibrahim nominated as his representative in Khorasan one Abu Moslem, a youth of nineteen years of age; who beginning to raise forces in that province, Merwan despatched against him a body of horse under Nasr Ebn Sayer; but that general was entirely defeated by Abu Moslem, and the greatest part of his men killed. The next year (the 128th of the Hegira) Merwan made vast preparations to oppose Abu Moslem, who after the late victory began to grow formidable. Merwan gained two victories over some of Ibrahim's generals; but, the year following, Abu Moslem brought such a formidable army into the field that the caliph's troops could not make head against them; his officers in Khorasan therefore were obliged either to take an oath of allegiance to Ibrahim, or to quit the province within a limited time. In the 130th year of the Hegira the caliph's general Nasr, having drawn together another army, was again defeated by Kahtabah, another of Ibrahim's generals, and forced to fly to Raya, a town of Dylam, or of Khorasan. The next year Ibrahim, having foolishly taken it into his head to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, attended by a numerous retinue splendidly accoutred, was seized and put to death by Merwan and the year following Abul Abbas was proclaimed caliph at Cufa. As soon as the ceremony was ended, he sent his uncle Abdallah with a powerful army to attack Merwan's forces that were encamped near Tubar, at a small distance from Mosul, where that caliph was then waiting for an account of the success of his troops under Yezid governor of Irak against Khataba, one of Al Saffah's generals. Khataba, receiving advice of Yezid's approach, immediately advanced against him, and entirely defeated him; but in crossing the Euphrates, the waters of which were greatly swelled, he was carried away by the current and drowned. The pursuit, how ever, was continued by his son Hamid, who dispersed the fugitives in such a manner that they could never afterwards be rallied. At the news of this disaster, Merwan was at first greatly dispirited; but, soon recovering himself, he advanced to meet Abdallah. In the beginning of the battle, the caliph happened to dismount; and his troop perceiving their sovereign's horse without his rider, concluded that he was killed, and therefore immediately fled; nor was it in the power of the caliph himself to rally them again, so that he was forced to fly to Damascus; but the inhabitants of that city, seeing his condition desperate, shut their gates against him. Upon this he fled to Egypt, where he maintained himself for some time; but was at last attacked

and killed by Saleh, Abdallah's brother, in a town of Thebais called Busir Kurides. The citizens of Damascus, though they had shamefully deserted Merwan, refused to open their gates to the victors; upon which Saleh entered the city by force, and gave it up to be plundered for three days by his soldiers.

By the total defeat and death of Merwan, Al Saffah remained sole master of the Saracen throne; but no very remarkable events happened during his reign; only he massacred great numbers of the partisans of the house of Ommiyah; and Constantine Copronymus, taking advantage of the intestine divisions among the Saracens, ravaged Syria. The caliph died of the small pox in the 136th year of the Hegira, in the thirtythird year of his age; and was succeeded by his brother Al Mansur. In the beginning of Al Mansur's reign hostilities continued against the house of Ommiyah, who still made resistance, but were always defeated. Abdallah, however, the caliph's uncle, caused himself to be proclaimed caliph at Damascus; and having assembled a powerful army in Arabia, Syria, and Mesopotamia, advanced with great expedition to the banks of the Masius near Nisibis, where he encamped. Al Mansur, being informed of this rebellion, despatched Abu Moslem against Abdallah. This general, having harassed him for five months together, at last brought him to a general action; and, having entirely defeated him, forced him to fly to Basra. Notwithstanding all his services, however, Abu Moslem was soon after ungratefully and barbarously murdered by Al Mansur, on some ridiculous pretences of being deficient in respect towards him. After the death of Abu Moslem, one Sinan, a Magian, or adorer of fire, having made himself master of that general's treasures, revolted against the caliph; but he was soon defeated by Jamhur Ebn Morad, who had been sent against him with a powerful army. In this expedition Jamhur having acquired immense riches, the covetous disposition of the caliph prompted him to send a person express to the army to seize upon all the wealth. This so provoked Jamhur that he immediately turned his arms against his master; but was soon defeated, and entirely reduced. The following year (the 139th of the Hegira) one Abdalrahman, of the house of Ommiyah, after the entire ruin of that family in Asia, arrived in Spain, where he was acknowledged caliph; nor did he or his descendants ever afterwards own subjection to the Arabian caliphs. The 140th year of the Hegira is remarkable for an attempt to assassinate the caliph. This attempt was made by the Rawandians; an impious sect, who held the doctrine of metempsychosis or transmigration. They first offered Al Mansur divine honors, by going in procession round his palace, as the Moslems were wont to do round the Caab; but the caliph, highly incensed at this impiety, ordered 100 of the principal of them to be imprisoned. These, however, were soon released by their companions; who then went in a body to the palace with an intention to murder their sovereign; but he being a person of uncommon bravery, though he was surprised with very few attendants, mounted a mule, and ad

vanced towards the mutineers with an intention to sell his life as dearly as possible. In the mean time, Maan Ebn Zaidat, one of the chiefs of the Ommiyan faction, who had concealed himself to avoid the caliph's resentment, sallied out of his retreat, and, putting himself at the head of Al Mansur's attendants, charged the rebels with such fury that he entirely defeated them. This generosity of Maan was so remarkable that it afterwards passed into a proverb. On this occasion 6000 of the Rawandians were killed on the spot, and the caliph delivered from instant death; he was, however, so much disgusted with the Arabs, on account of this attempt, that he resolved to remove the capital of his empire out of their peninsula; and accordingly founded a new city on the banks of the Tigris, named Bagdad. The foundations of it were laid in the 158th year of the Hegira, and finished four years after. On the removal of the seat of government to Bagdad, the peninsula of the Arabs seems all at once to have lost its consequence, and in a short time the inhabitants seem even to have detached themselves from the jurisdiction of the caliphs; for in the 156th year of the Hegira, while Al Mansur was yet living, they made irruptions into Syria and Mesopotamia, as if they had designed to conquer these countries over again for themselves; and though the Arabs, properly so called, continued nominally subject to the caliphs of Bagdad till the abolition of the caliphate by Hulaku the Tartar, yet they did not become subject to him when he became master of that city. From the building of the city of Bagdad to the death of Al Mansur nothing very remarkable happened, excepting some irruptions made into the territories of the Greeks, and by the Arabs into some of the caliph's other territories. In the 157th year of the Hegira, also, a grievous famine was felt in Mesopotamia, which was quickly after followed by a plague that destroyed great numbers. This year likewise, the Christians, who had been all along very severely dealt with by Al Mansur, were treated with the utmost rigor by Musa Ebn Mosaab the caliph's governor; every one who was unable to pay the enormous tribute exacted of them being thrown into prison. In the 158th year of the Hegira, the caliph set out from Bagdad to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca; but, being taken ill on the road, he expired at Bir Maimun, whence s body was carried to Mecca; where, after 100 graves had been dug, that his sepulchre might be concealed, he was interred, having lived, according to some, sixty-three, according to others, sixty-eight years, and reigned twenty-two. He was extremely covetous, and left in his treasury 600,000,000 dirhems, and 24,000,000 dinars. He is reported to have paid his cook by assigning him the heads and legs of the animals dressed in his kitchen, and to have obliged him to procure at his own expense all the fuel and vessels he had occasion for. When Al Mansur expired at Bir Maimun, he had only his domestics and Rabi his freed man with him. The latter, for some time, ķept his death concealed, and pretended to have a conference with him; in which, as he gave out, the caliph commanded him to exact an oath of allegiance to Al Mohdi his son, as his VOL. XIX.

immediate successor, and to Isa Ebn Musa his cousin german, as the next apparent heir to the crown. He then despatched a courier to Bagdad with the news of Al Mansur's death: upon which Al Mohni was unanimously proclaimed caliph. Isa Ebn Musa, however, no sooner heard this news than he began to entertain thoughts of setting up for himself at Cufa, where he then resided; and, to facilitate the execution of his scheme, fortified himself in that city. But Al Mohdi, being apprized of his defection, sent a detachment of 1000 horse to bring him to Bagdad; which being done, Al Mohni not only prevailed upon him to own his allegiance to him, but also to give up his right to the succession for 10,000 according to some, or according to others for 10,000,000 dinars. From the accession of Al Mohdi to the 164th year of the Hegira, the most remarkable event was the rebellion of Al Mokanna. This impious impostor, whose true name was Hakem Ebn Hesham, came originally from Khorasan, and had been an under secretary to Abu Moslem governor of that province. He afterwards turned soldier, and passed from the province of Khorasan into that of Mawaralnahr, where he gave himself out for a prophet. The name of Al Mokanna, as also that of Al Borkai, that is, the veiled, he took from his custom of covering his face with a veil or girdle mask, to conceal his deformity; he having lost an eye in the wars, and being otherwise of a despicable appearance. In some places he made many proselytes, deluding the people with a number of juggling tricks which they swaliowed as miracles, and particularly by causing the appearance of a moon to rise out of a well for many nights together; whence he was also called in the Persian tongue Sazendeb mak, or the moon-maker. This wretch, not content with being reckoned a prophet, arrogated to himself divine honors; pretending that the Deity resided in his person. At last this impostor raised an open rebellion against the caliph, and made himself master of several fortified places in Khorasan, so that Al Mohdi was obliged to send one of his generals with an army against him. Upon the approach of the caliph's troops, Al Mokanna retired into one of his strong fortresses, which he had well provided for a siege; and sent his emissaries abroad to persuade the people that he raised the dead to life, and foretold future events. But being closely besieged by the caliph's forces, and seeing no possibility of escaping, he gave poison in wine to his whole family, and burnt thei bodies, with all their furniture, provisions, and cattle; and, lastly, he threw himself into the flames, or, as others say, into a tub of aquafortis, or some other preparation, which consumed every part of him except the hair. When the besiegers therefore entered the place, they found no living creature in it, except one of Al Mokanna's concubines, who, suspecting his design, had hid herself, and now discovered the whole. This terrible contrivance, however, produced the desired effect. He had promised his followers that his soul should transmigrate into the form of an old man riding on a grayish colored beast, and that after so many years he would return and

X

give them the earth for their possession; which ridiculous expectation kept the sect in being for several years. All this time war had been carried on with the Greeks, but without any reremakable success on either side. In the 164th year of the Hegira, however, Al Mohdi ordered his son Harun Alraschid to penetrate into the Greek territories with an army of 95,000 men. Harun, then, having entered the dominions of the empress Irene, defeated one of her commanders that advanced against him; after which he laid waste several of the imperial provinces with fire and sword, and even threatened Constantinople itself. By this the empress was so terrified that she purchased a peace with the caliph by paying him an annual tribute of 70,000 pieces of gold; which delivered her from the depredations of these barbarians. After the signing of the treaty, Harun returned home laden with spoils and glory. In the 169th year of the Hegira, Al Mohdi was poisoned, though undesignedly, by one of his concubines, named Hasanah. She had designed to destroy one of her rivals whom she imagined to have too great an ascendant over the caliph, by giving her a poisoned pear. This the latter, not suspecting any thing, gave to the caliph; who had no sooner eaten it than he felt himself in an exquisite torture, and soon after expired.

sors.

On the death of Al Mohdi, he was succeeded by his eldest son Al Hadi; who having formed a design to deprive his younger brother Harun Alraschid of his right of succession,-and even to assassinate him, was poisoned by his vizier in the 170th year of the Hegira; and on his death the celebrated caliph Harua Alraschid ascended the throne. This was the best and wisest prince that ever sat on the throne of Bagdad. He was also extremely fortunate in all his undertakings, though he did not much extend his dominions by conquest. In his time the Saracen empire may be said to have been in its most flourishing state, though, by the independency of the Saracens in Spain, who had formerly set up a caliph of the house of Ommiyah, his territories were not quite so extensive as those of some of his predecesSee BAGDAD. The first instance of Harun's good fortune, and which was taken for a presage of a prosperous and happy reign, was his finding a valuable ring which he had thrown into the Tigris to avoid being deprived of it by his brother Al Hadi. He was able to give the divers no other direction than by throwing a stone from the bridge of Bagdad, about the same place of the river in which he had thrown the ring; notwithstanding which they found it without any great difficulty. In the 186th year of the Hegira, or A. D. 802, the caliph divided the government of his extensive dominions among his three sons to Al Amin the eldest he assigned Syria, Irak, the three Arabias, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Media, Palestine, Egypt, and all that part of Africa extending from the confines of Egypt and Ethiopia to the straits of Gibraltar, with the dignity of caliph; to Al Mamun, the second, he assigned Persia, Kerman, the Indies, Khorasan, Tabrestan, Cablestan and Zablestan, with the vast province of Mawaralnahr; and to his third son, Al Kasem, he gave Armenia. Na

tolia, Jorjan, Georgia, Circassia, and all the Sa racen territories bordering upon the Euxine Sea. Al Amin was to ascend the throne immediately after his father's decase; after him Al Mamun, and then Al Kasem, whom he had surnamed Al Mutaman. The most considerable exploits performed by this caliph were against the Greeks, who by their perfidy provoked him to make war upon them, and whom he always overcame. In the 187th year of the Hegira the caliph received a letter from the Greek emperor Nicephorus, soon after he had been advanced to the imperial dignity, commanding him to return all the money he had extorted from the empress Irene, though that had been secured to him by the last treaty concluded with that princess, or expect soon to see an imperial army in the heart of his territories. This insolent letter so exasperated Harun_that he immediately assembled his forces, and advanced to Heraclea, laying the country through which he passed waste with fire and sword. For some time also he kept that city straitly besieged ; which so terrified the Greek emperor that he submitted to pay an annual tribute. Upon this Harun granted him a peace, which he broke soon after; but Harun compelled him to renew it, and then returned with his army. In the 188th year of the Hegira war was renewed with the Greeks; and Nicephorus with a great army attacked the caliph's forces with the utmost fury. He was, however, defeated with the loss of 40,000 men, and received three wounds in the action; after which the Saracens committed terrible ravages in his territories, and returned home laden with spoils. The next year Harun'invaded Phrygia, defeated an imperial army sent to oppose him, and ravaged the country. In the 190th year of the Hegira, November 27th, 805, the caliph marched into the imperial territories with an army of 135,000 men, besides a great number of volunteers. He first took the city of Heraclea, whence he carried 16,000 prisoners; after which he took several other places, and made a descent on Cyprus, which he plundered in a terrible manner. This so intimidated Nicephorus that he immediately sent the tribute due to Harun, the withholding of which had been the cause of the war, and concluded a peace upon the caliph's own terms; one of which was that the city of Heraclea should never be rebuilt. This perhaps Harun would not so readily have granted, had not one Rafe Ebn Al Leith revolted against him at Samarcand, and assembled a considerable force. In the 191st year of the Hegira, the caliph removed the governor of Khorasan from his employment, because he had not attended to the motions of the rebel Rafe. As this governor had also tyrannised over his subjeets in the most cruel manner, his successor sent him in chains to the caliph yet the rebels made this year a great progress in the conquest of Khorasan. Next year the caliph marched in person against the rebels, who were daily becoming more formidable. The general rendezvous of his troops was in the plains of Rakka, whence he advanced with them to Bagdad. Having there supplied the troops with every thing necessary, he continued his march to the frontiers of Jorjan, where he was seized with an illness which grew