perstitious ceremonies by the way, as well as some signal acts of justice and mercy, and giving some striking instances of humility, by causing all his followers to eat with him without distinction. Upon his arrival he preached a sermon to his people; after which he signed the articles of capitulation, confirmed the inhabitants of Jerusalem in all their rights and privileges, and visited the temple of the resurrection, and other antiquities of that city, accompanied by Sophronius the patriarch, who with difficulty could prevail on him to change his dirty garments for others more becoming his dignity. After dividing the government of Syria between Abu Obeidah and Yezid Ebn Abu Sosian, ordering Amru Ebn Al As to invade Egypt, and leaving proper orders otherwise, he returned to Medina. Yezid then attacked Cæsarea, but found it stronger than he expected. Obeidah advanced to Aleppo, where Youkinna and John, two brothers, governed under Heraclius. Youkinna resolved to oppose the Saracens, and accordingly set out at the head of 12,000 troops; and, meeting with a party of Arabs, defeated them; but, in the mean time, the people of Aleppo, afraid of the consequences, if their city should be taken by storm, submitted to Abu Obeidah. On this Youkinna posted home to Aleppo in a rage, ordered them to annul their treaty, and, finding them not ready to comply, killed 300 of them, among whom was his own brother John. He was soon after attacked by the Saracens, and defeated with the loss of 3000 men; after which he was besieged by them in the citadel, from which he made repeated sallies, and killed great numbers of the Saracens. Abu Obeidah, after continuing the siege four months onger, at last wrote Omar that the citadel was impregnable, and proposed raising it. But Omar sent him a fresh reinforcement, with seventy camels, and orders to continue it. Among these new troops was an Arab of a gigantic size, named Dames; who, by his size and his ingenuity, in raising seven men perpendicularly upon his own and each other's shoulders, overtopt the walls in the night, got quietly in, killed the sentinels and the guards; and admitting Khaled, with a fresh party of Saracens, soon got complete possession of the citadel. Youkinna and some of the principal officers turned Mahometans. After this Youkinna proposed to Obeidah to betray into his hand Azar, an important fort, where his own cousin Theodorus was commandant, by going to him at the head of 100 Arabs dressed as Greeks. But, this piece of treachery was detected, Theodorus having heard of the plan; and Youkinna and his pseudo-Greeks were made prisoners. But the fort being reduced, Youkinna recovered his liberty; but was soon after taken prisoner a second time, and carried before Heraclius at Antioch. Here again he dissembled, and pretended that he was still a Christian, and had only professed Mahometanism to serve the emperor the more effectually; upon which Heraclius appointed him governor of Antioch, which the traitor soon after delivered up to the Saracens. Heraclius, disconsolate by these successive losses, was put by the king of Ghassan upon the ungenerous plan of attempting to get rid of Omar by assassination. The king accord

ingly employed Wathek Ebn Mosafer, a resolute young Arab of his own tribe, on this dangerous enterprise. Wathek got a fair opportunity, by finding Omar sleeping under a tree, but was deterred by a lion, who came and licked the caiiph's feet till he awoke: on which Wathek, considering this as miraculous, confessed his intention, turned Mahometan, and was pardoned. Obeidah then despatched a body of 1300 troops, under Meisarah Ebn Mesroux, to the mountainous parts of Syria. The Greeks surrounded them, and would have cut them all off, had not Khaled appeared at the head of 3000 Arabs. On this the Greeks fled, leaving their tents and rich effects to the Arabs. But Abdallah Ebn Hodasa, one of Omar's chief favorites, was taken prisoner, and sent to Constantinople. Omar wrote to Heraclius, requesting his release, which Heraclius generously granted, and sent along with him many valuable presents, particularly a jewel of immense value, which Omar sold, and put the price in the public treasury, though requested to keep it for his own use. About this time a negociation for peace took place; but, Omar insisting upon an annual tribute, it failed. Mean time many skirmishes took place, and many heroic acts of prowess were performed by individuals on both sides. But the chief success was on the side of the Saracens. Khaled took Manbii, Beraa, Balis, Raaban, Douluc, Korus (the ancient Cyrus), and several other fortified towns. Prince Constantine, the son of Heraclius, finding his troops diminishing daily, took the advantage of a tempestuous night to escape to Casarea; which was soon after invested by Amru. Mean time Youkinna, by his old system of treachery, took Tripoli, and seized fifty ships, which had just arrived from Crete and Cyprus with a supply of arms and provisions, not knowing that the Saracens were possessed of it. With these he set out for Tyre, where he deceived the people, pretending to come as a friend, and opened the gates to Yezid. Constantine, hearing at Cæsarea of these losses, set sail with his family and all his wealth, leaving the citizens to make their best terms with Amru. The surrender of Cæsarea was followed by that of all the other cities and forts in Syria, from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, in the eighteenth year of the Hegira, or A. D. 649, six years after the expedition commenced. To the miseries of war were added those of violent storms of hail, an epidemical distemper, and at last a pestilence, all within the course of this year, which the Arabs style the year of destruction. By this last plague, the Saracens lost 25,000 men; among whom were Abu Obeidah, Yezid, Abu Sosian, Serjabil, and other eminent characters. Amru after this set out for Egypt, and on his way took Tarma, a town on the isthmus of Suez. He next attacked Mesr, the ancient Memphis, which, after a siege of seven months, was betrayed to him by Al Mokawkas, the governor. He then proceeded to Alexandria, which, after defeating the imperial army, he invested. During the siege Amru himself was taken prisoner, but protected from detection by one of his own slaves giving him a box on the ear, while he was answering some questions proposed by the gover

nor, who generously dismissed him without ransom. Amru nevertheless reduced Alexandria soon after, which was followed by the loss of the whole kingdom of Egypt; while his general Okba Ebn Nafe made himself master of all the country of Africa, between Barka and Zoweilah, including also what now forms the piratical kingdom of Tripoli. Soon after this a great famine raged in Arabia, particularly at Medina, where Omar then resided. Omar therefore wrote to Amru to send him a supply of corn, which he accordingly sent on a train of loaded camels, the first of which entered Medina when the last left Alexandria. But, this method proving tedious and expensive, Omar ordered Amru to clear the Amris Trajanus, now named Khalis, which runs through Cairo, of the sand which choked it. This Amru did, and thus rendered the communication from Egypt to Arabia easy. The Saracens, thus successful in the west, were no less so in the east. The capture of Irak, and destruction of Hira, brought on a war with the Persians. See PERSIA. On the departure of Khaled, the command of the troops was left with Abu Obeid Ebn Masud, Mothanna Ebn Haretha, Amru Ebn Hasen, and Salit Ebn Kis. Abu Obeid, having passed a river, was killed, and his troops in great danger; Mothanna retreated, repassed the river without loss, and fortified his camp till he received supplies; his troops in the mean time ravaging Irak on the side next the Euphrates. A body of 12,000 Persian horse was sent against these invaders, under Mahran. The Persians had the advantage at first, and the Arabs retired, but were soon brought back by Mothanna: the battle lasted from noon till sunset; at last Mothanna engaging Mahran in single combat laid him dead at his feet; on which the Persians fled. After this a powerful army was sent under the Persian general Rustam; but he was also killed, and his troops dispersed. Abu Musa, another Saracen general, defeated a formidable body under Al Harzaman, a noble Persian, at Athwaz. But of all Omar's generals, Saad Ebn Abu Wakkas was the most successful. With 12,000 troops he advanced to Kadesia, a city bordering on the deserts of Irak; where, having defeated an army of 120,000 Persians, he took the rich city of Al Madayen, with Yezdegerd's treasure; which was so rich that Saad took out of it 3000,000,000 of dinars, or £2025,000,000 sterling; besides the royal plate, the crown and royal garments, another treasure of 10,000,000 of crowns, and a piece of silk tapestry sixty cubits square, so richly adorned with gold, silver, and jewels, that Omar having cut it in pieces, and distributed it among the Saracens, a small part of it, which fell to Ali's share, sold for 20,000 crowns. In the twenty-first year of the Hegira the Saracens, still unsatisfied with conquest, invaded Mesopotamia, under Aiyad Ebn Ganem, where the city of Edessa submitted at the first summons. He next marched to Constantina, the ancient Nicephorum, which he took by storm, as well as Dara, where he massacred the people; which so terrified the rest of the fortified towns that they all submitted. Mogheirah Ebn Saabah, another of Omar's generals, took Shiz, a town famed for the birth of Zerdusht,

the Persian philosopher, and overran the province of Adirbeitzan. He also reduced Armenia, and penetrated into Cappadocia. Saad the same year took Athwas, the capital of Khusistan, or Chusistan, the ancient Susiana, and reduced the whole province; while Al Nooman conquered the greatest part of Chorasan. But, while Omar's troops were thus overrunning the finest countries in the world, a period was put to his life and conquests by a Persian, named Abu Lulua, who stabbed him thrice in the belly, while performing his devotions at Medina, because Omar had refused to remit a tribute payable for the exercise of his religion. The Arabs rushed upon the assassin, but before they could get him overpowered he murdered seven of them. Omar languished three days, and died in the twelfth year of his reign.

After the murder of Omar, Othman Ebn Assan was chosen caliph; and Ali was still kept out of his right, though he had not only a better title, but was in fact the most virtuous and best character, and the bravest warrior of that period. Othman was inaugurated in the twenty-fourth year of the Hegira, or A. D. 645. He began his reign by sending Al Mogheirah to complete the conquest of Amadan; which he soon accomplished, and also reduced Bira, a strong fort of Mesopotamia. Another army, under Abdallah Ebn Amur, was sent into Persia to reduce the rest of Yezdegerd's dominions; which was done so completely that Yezdegerd was obliged to fly to Segestan, and leave Persia altogether. See PERSIA. In the twenty-seventh year of the Hegira Moawiyah reduced the islands of Cyprus and Aradus; and took Ancyra and Rhodes, where he broke in pieces the famous colossus, and sold the metal of it to a Jew of Edessa. Another of Othman's commanders entered Isauria, where he committed dreadful depredations, plundering the towns and villages, murdering many of the inhabitants, and carrying off 5000 prisoners. In the thirty-first year of the Hegira Hebib, entering that part of Armenia which was still unconquered, defeated a body of the imperial troops, pursuing them to Mount Caucasus, and laying waste the country; and Abul Abar, the admiral of the Saracens, defeated the emperor Constans by sea, on the coast of Lycia. This battle was so bloody that the sea was dyed with blood. But, while Othman's arms were thus successful abroad, a dangerous conspiracy was forming against him at home. The accusations against him were trifling and superstitious. To mention but one-he had presumed to sit on the top of Mahomet's pulpit, whereas Abu Becr had only sat on the highest step, while Omar was content with the lowest.' Othman, however, to all these formidable accusations pleaded guilty, and promised amendment; but this only increased the insolence of the rebels. By the influence of Ali, however, tranquillity was apparently restored. But it was soon interrupted by Ayesha, one of Mahomet's widows, who, by a scheme of villany worthy of the widow of the grand impostor, accomplished the destruction of the caliph. Wishing to raise her favorite Telha to the caliphate, she prevailed on Merwan, the caliph's secretary, to write to the prefect of Egypt,

enjoining him to put to death Mahomet Ebn Abu Beer, with whom the letter was sent, and who was to have been his successor. This letter Merwan took care should be discovered, and Mahomet, taking it for genuine, published the caliph's cruelty all over these countries. He then marched with a body of rebels to Medina, and besieged the caliph in his palace; and, notwithstanding Othman's protestations of innocence, nothing but his death could satisfy the rebels. Othman applied to Ali for assistance, who sent his two sons Hassan and Hosein, who defended the palace with great courage, till, water failing, they were obliged to abandon it; upon which the rebels entered and murdered the caliph, in the eighty-second year of his age, and twelfth of his reign. His body remained three days unburied, when it was thrown into a hole without any solemnity.

Mahomet's omission of naming a successor to the caliphate is totally unaccountable; and, as we have seen, threw the dignity out of his family during three successive reigns. His son-in-law Ali repeatedly claimed the succession, and doubtless had the best right, yet always peaceably submitted to the election of other persons. The Arabs, by their giving the preference to others, seem to have been influenced by no motive whatever but this republican idea, that it should not be established as a principle that the apostleship or caliphate should be reckoned an hereditary dignity. On the death of Othman, however, Ali's amiable qualities triumphed over all opposition, and he was unanimously elected. Besides his other popular qualities, he was a man of such unparalleled courage and strength, that he never declined a combat to which he was challenged, nor ever failed to come off victor; whence he was styled by the Arabs The lion of God. Great as Ali's merits were, however, he was not without his enemies. Among these Mahomet's widow, Ayesha, was the most conspicuous. At the time of Ali's inauguration she was at Mecca, where she possessed a considerable share of power. She very early began to plot against him, and Ali raised up against himself another very powerful enemy, by imprudently dismissing Moawiyah from his government of Syria, who, whatever malversations he was guilty of, should not have been displaced till Ali's government was more firmly established. The consequence was that Moawiyah was immediately proclaimed caliph by his troops, and thus the Saracens were divided into two factions; the one under Moawiyah and Ayesha, adhering to the house of Ommiya, to which Othman and Moawiyah belonged, the other to Ali. The former were called Motazalites, or Separatists; the latter Sephalites. Ali, finding a strong party forming against him, applied to the Koreish, to raise an army against Ayesha, who had begun hostilities and taken the city of Basra. Ziyad Ebn Hantelah, the Ansars, and a great number of people jomed Ali. At Arrabah he was joined by many other parties; from Medina he got a large supply of horses, and from Cufa 8000 men. He then advanced to Basra, attacked and defeated the troops of Ayesha, and took the prophet's widow prisoner, though her troops were so zea

lous in her defence, that seventy men had their hands cut off successively, who held her camel by the bridle. Ali, however, treated her very kindly, and at first set her at liberty, but afterwards confined her to her house at Medina, to prevent her from interfering farther in state affairs. After this victory Ali had no more enemies to contend with in Arabia, Egypt, Irak, Persia, or Chorason. But a strong party of rebels still remained in Syria headed by Moawiyah, who was soon joined by Amru Ebn Al Ats. Ali, after in vain attempting to bring the rebels to an accommodation, entered Syria with 70,000 men, while that of Moawiyah amounted to 80,000. By reinforcements the former was increased to 90,000, and the latter to 120,000. The armies came within sight of each other in the end of the thirtysixth year of the Hegira. The first month of the thirty-seventh was spent in fruitless negociations; after which they fought in different parties, without hazarding a general engagement. These battles lasted about 110 days, during which Moawiyah lost 45,000 men and Ali 25,000. Among these was Ali's general of horse, Ammar Ebn Yazar, who was above ninety years old, and had been much esteemed by Mahomet, and was one of his companions. The loss of him so enraged Ali, that he challenged Moawiyah to fight him in single combat. This, however, the coward refused, though Amru urged him to accept. The battle was then renewed with great fury; Moawiyah's troops were pushed to their camp, which would certainly have been taken, had not Amru retrieved Moawiyah's affairs, when just on the brink of destruction, by a stratagem. He ordered some of his men to fix copies of the Koran to the points of their lances, and carry them to the front of the battle, crying out, "This is the book that ought to decide all differences; this is the book of God, that prohibits the effusion of mussulmans blood.' Ali's troops on this threw down their arms, and thus was decisive victory wrested from him when almost gained. The two parties then agreed to choose each his arbitrator. Moawiyah chose Amru, but Ali was again shuffled out of his right, the troops of Irak naming for him Abu Musa, a man who had already betrayed him. The consequence was that Ali was deposed; to which sentence he submitted, but without laying down his arms. After this Ali retired to Cufa, where 12,000 of his troops, called Kharejites, pretending to be offended with the step he had taken, revolted. They insisted that he ought not to keep the peace with Moawiyah, but pursue him without mercy. But Ali replied that, as he had given his word, he must keep it. They then chose Abdallah Ebn Waheb their general, who appointed for their rendezvous Naharwan, a town between Waset and Bagdad, four miles east of the Tigris, where they collected an army of 25,000 men. Ali at last marched against them, but previously prociaimed quarter and pardon to all who should return to his standard. This measure soon reduced Abdallah's troops to 4000 men, with whom he rushed upon Ali's forces, who cut them all to pieces except nine. Had Ali marched immediately against Moawiyah, he had probably reduced him entirely; but he seems to have considered the agreement as binding,

and therefore acted only on the defensive. At last the Kharejites, wishing to ged rid of Moawiyah, Amru, and Ali, sent assassins to murder all the three. Moawiyah was wounded, but recovered; Amru's secretary was killed by mistake; but Ali was wounded with a poisoned sword, which proved mortal. The assassin was taken, and would have been pardoned had Ali recovered; but he ordered him to be put to death if he died, that he might accuse him before God.' Even in this, however, Ali showed his clemency, by ordering him to be killed at one biow, without torture. Thus fell Ali, the most virtuous of all the caliphs, after he had reigned nearly five years, and lived sixty-three.

6

Hassan the son of Ali, who inherited all his father's virtues except his courage, was declared caliph immediately upon Ali's 'death. Moawiyah soon showed his hostile intentions, and Hassan's friends pressed him to declare war immediately; but, though they prevailed with him to take the field, his disposition was too mild and peaceable: and he himself, sensible of his incapacity to dispute the empire with Moawiyah, in spite of the remonstrances of his friends, resigned it to that villain; who some years after caused him to be poisoned by his own wife. Moawiyah, now sole master of the empire, resolved to reduce the Kharejites, who were still rebellious. In this service he offered Hassan the command of the army, but that prince de clined it. He then sent the Syrian troops against them, but they were defeated. At last the Cufans were employed, who quickly put an end to the rebellion. In the forty-eighth year of the Hegira the caliph sent his son Yezid, with a powerful army, to besiege Constantinople. In this expedition he was accompanied by three or four of those associates of Mahomet whom he had dignified with the title of his companions, who, notwithstanding their great age, were prompted by zeal to undergo incredible fatigues. But, in spite of the zeal of these veterans, the expedition proved unsuccessful; and in it one of them, viz. Abu Ayub, who had been with Mahomet at the battles of Bedr and Ohod, lost his life. His tomb is still held in the highest veneration by all Mussulmans. In the fifty-fourth year of the Hegira the Saracens made an irruption into Bukharia, and defeated the Turkish army, killing great numbers of them. About this time a treaty was concluded between the emperor Constantine IV. and the Saracens, whereby the latter were allowed to keep the territories they had seized, but bound to pay 3000 lbs. of gold annually, fifty slaves, and fifty good horses. This treaty was to last thirty years. In the fifty-fifth year of the Hegira, Moawiyah conferred the government of Chorasan upon Saad, Othman's grandson, who soon after passed the Jihun, or Amu (the ancient Oxus), and advanced with a body of troops to Samarcand, which instantly surrendered to him; soon after which he defeated an army of Usbeck Tartars, and marched directly to Tarmud, which also surrendered. The fifty-seventh year of the hegira was remarkable for nothing but vast swarms of locusts which did incredible damage in Syria and Mesopotamia. In the fifty-eighth Ayesha, Ma

homet's widow died, and in the sixtieth Moawiyah himself, after having reigned from Hassan's resignation, nineteen years five months and five days. He was interred at Damascus.

On Moawiyah's death his son Yezid was immediately proclaimed, April 7th, 680. He wrote to Al Walid, the governor of Medina, to seize Hosein, the remaining son of Ali, and Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, if they refused to acknowledge his right; but they escaped to Mecca; on which Jediz displaced Al Walid, and appointed Amru Ebn Saad governor in his stead. Amru immediately sent against Abdallah his own brother Amer, who mortally hated him; but Abdallah engaged and took him prisoner, which raised his fame at Medina. Mean time Hosein, as the only heir of Ali, became very popular at Mecca, Medina, Irak, and Cufa; and the Cufans even raised an army of 18,000 men in his favor; and promised to raise 120,000 more; but all Hosein's hopes were soon frustrated, and himself killed in an engagement with Obeidallah. Yezid did himself honor by treating Hosein's family with kindness. In the sixty-first year of the Hegira Yezid appointed Salem Ebn Ziyad governor of Chorasan, who soon after made an irruption into the Turkish territories. He sent a body of troops to Khowarazm, the capital of the Tartars, from which he extorted 50,000,000 of money: whence advancing to Samarcand, he compelled the people of that city also to pay him an immense sum. Meantime Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, being, by the death of Hosein, at the head of the house of Hashem, began to aspire to the caliphate, and was proclaimed caliph at Medina, on the arrival of Hosein's family. He then expatiated on Hosein's tragical death, and accused the Cufans of being the most perfidious villains on earth. This pleased the citizens of Mecca and Medina, who flocked to him in crowds, so that he soon had a great army. Yezid, hearing of all this, swore he would have him in chains, and sent a silver collar for him to Merwan, governor of Medina. At last the people of Medina renounced their allegiance to Yezid, and formally deposed him in a whimsical but expressive manner, throwing aside their turbans, shoes, &c., and saying, 'I lay aside Yezid as I do this turban, or shoe,' &c. They then banished Yezid's governor, and all his friends, who, to the number of 1000, took refuge in the house of Merwan Ebn Al Haken, where, being besieged by Abdallah's party, they sent to Yezid for assistance, who detached a body of troops under Moslem Ebn Okba to Medina for that purpose. The people of Medina, on this, allowed Yezid's friends to withdraw; but Moslem advanced at the head of 5000 foot and 12,000 horse, and summoned the town to surrender; which being refused, the garrison made a vigorous defence, but, the principal officers being killed, the city was taken by storm; all the men who had borne arms were massacred, the women ravished, and the city pillaged. Ali alone, the son of Hosein, was treated with respect. By this severity Moslem incurred the anathema pronounced by Mahomet against those who should pillage Medina. After this Moslem proceeded to Mecca, where Abdallah had retired; but he died by the road, and the command devolved