1802,From the Black Sea 3,000,000 2,055,000| 1804, 5,000,000 4,200,000 1805, 7,400,000 5,356,000

Catharine II., by duties and prohibitions, endeavoured to diminish the mass of imports; and, by late regulations, certain objects are allowed to be imported by foreigners only into the ports of Petersburg, Riga, Revel, and Liebau. But, though the manufactures of Russia have advanced beyond the state of infancy they were in half a century past, they are still very insufficient to afford all the objects that increasing civilisation renders necessaries to the higher classes, such as fine manufactures for clothing, wines, ornamental furniture, &c.

Russia presents a singular phenomenon among the maritime powers, that of possessing an imposing military marine with a very insignificant commercial one. The total number of her merchant vessels that navigate the Baltic and the ocean did not very lately exceed fifty; 100 lesser vessels serve to carry on the coasting trade of the Baltic, and about 100 craft, of twenty to thirty tons, are employed in loading and dis charging the vessels at Cronstadt that cannot enter the Neva. Not one of the Russian ports, except Petersburgh, has any establishments for building or repairing ships. Even the few ships that sail under the Russian flag from Riga and Revel belong to the merchants of Hamburg and Lubeck, who, in order to profit by the drawback of three-eighths of the duties on imports, have purchased the freedom of these cities.

Russia has two trading companies, one for carrying on the herring-fishery in the White Sea, and the North-west American Company. A company has also been founded at Petersburg for saving the cargoes of vessels wrecked in the gulf of Finland; and the fourth part of the property saved is adjudged to the company as salvage. Several ukases also prescribe to the inhabitants of the coasts the measures to be taken to assist the crews and save the cargoes of the stranded vessels.

Under the immediate successors of Peter the Great the Russian navy was neglected, and had little more than a nominal existence. When Catharine II. mounted the throne, this ambitious and enlightened princess again invited English and other foreign ship builders and officers to Petersburg; and among the English was Sir Charles Knowles, a captain in the British navy, who united the professional knowledge of the complete practical seaman to an intimate acquaintance with the theory of naval construction. Under his direction the Russian marine was

soon put on a respectable footing, and many of the abuses in its civil administration corrected. Towards the end of Catharine's reign the marine again declined, but revived under Paul, who built many ships, and introduced several improvements into the administration. The Russian dominions afford every article necessary to the construction and equipment of a navy. At Cronstadt and Petersburg the ships are built of the oak of Kasan; the Ukraine and government of Moscow supply hemp; masts are procured from the vast pine forests of Novogorod, and from the Polish provinces; pitch and tar from Wyborg; iron and copper from Siberia. In spite of all these advantages the marine is far from having attained a height proportionate to the land forces of the empire. The want of ports on the ocean, and of colonies and fisheries abroad, as well as the state of vassalage of the peasantry, which binds them to the soil, are the chief causes that keep down the military marine, as well as the commercial, by preventing the formation of seamen. The government has, however, latterly done something towards forming national seamen, by obliging all Russian ships to have two-thirds of their crews natives; and binding the captains, under a penalty of 240 rubles, to bring back to port every Russian seaman he carries from it. There is, however, no restriction with respect to the countries of the captains and officers of merchant vessels; and the greater number of those in the Russian foreign traders are foreigners. It has also been latterly the custom to send young men, at the expense of the crown, into the English service to learn the profession, and they have been admitted into the British navy as volunteers.

In 1803 a school of naval architecture was founded at Petersburg, the expenses of which are paid by government, and amount to upwards of 200,000 rubles a year. There is also a similar institution at Nicolaef in the Black Sea. The palace of Oranienbaum has been appropriated for a naval academy, in which 600 cadets are educated at the expense of the crown. They are admitted at the age of five years, and remain till seventeen: during the last three years they make an annual cruise in the Baltic, as far as Revel. There are also navigation schools at Riga, Archangel, and Irkutsk in Siberia, and a school for Baltic pilotage at Cronstadt.

The government of Russia is a despotic monarchy; the sovereign uniting in himself 'the legislative, executive, and judicial authorities. Any subject, from the highest to the lowest, may be banished, and his property confiscated, at the pleasure of the czar. The succession appears to be hereditary; but one prince has often been deposed and another raised to the throne without exciting any commotion. The emperor is generally assisted, however, by a number of ministers and counsellors of his own appointing. The grand chancellor is the first officer of state; and under him are ministers for foreign affairs, finances, war, marine, interior, religious worship, public instruction, and police. The different councils in which the ministers preside are styled imperial colleges: the members, with a number of other statesmen appointed by the

emperor, amounting altogether to thirty-five, compose the supreme council, which is invested with a superintending and controlling power over all the public affairs. The senate is another public body, established by the late emperor in 1801, and of which his imperial majesty is the president. This body has the revision of both civil and criminal affairs. It receives reports from all the inferior departments, decides in every difficult case that arises in the tribunals; and from its decrees there lies no appeal except to the emperor. All questions are determined in this body by a majority of votes, amounting to two-thirds of the whole: in the other departments unanimity is necessary. The senate is the organ of the decrees or ukases of the emperor. The cabinet is a distinct council from any of the above, and has generally consisted of ten members, including the high steward of the household. This council manages his majesty's private affairs, examines petitions, despatches, and accounts, and watches over the produce of the revenue. It also assists the emperor in deliberating on the appeals received from the senate.

The civil law in Russia is a collection of rules derived from most of the other states of Europe, and methodised under the direction of Catharine II. She divided the empire into provinces, and adopted a variety of regulations for the better administration of justice. Courts are now established in each of the provinces, and judges appointed by the crown. But an impartial administration of justice cannot be introduced between the nobles who are tyrants, and the peasants, slaves. The criminal law admits of capital punishment for high treason only; and the humanity of the emperor Alexander induced him to abolish torture. Felons receive the knout, are branded on the cheek and forehead, and sentenced to hard labor. Many of them are sent to the mines of Siberia, where numbers perish from the effects of the knout, the fatigue of travelling nearly 5000 miles in fetters, and the unhealthy state of the mines.

The nominal force of the army is 600,000; but in time of peace one-fifth or one-sixth of this number is non-effective, and at least an equal number are required for garrison duty. At the beginning of 1812 the utmost exertions of the emperor could not bring into the field more than 200,000 men. The navy we have already noticed.

According to the most authentic accounts the revenue of Russia is nearly £25,000,000 sterling, arising chiefly from a poll tax, first imposed by Peter the Great; a tax on the capital of merchants residing within the imperial dominions; duties on the exports and imports, and upon law proceedings; together with the produce of the royal domains and monopolies. There are like wise stamp duties, and various other imposts.

The established religion is the Greek church, and has been fully described in our article GREEK CHURCH. There are about 2,000,000 of separatists, with a great number of Mahometans and Pagans, as well as Protestants and Roman Catholics, to all of whom complete toleration is allowed. The most singular of the sects is the Duhoborsti, who, after many persecutions, have

been allowed to settle undisturbed in Taurida. They have neither priests, church, nor pictures; and reject both baptism and the Lord's supper. They are sober, industrious, and gentle, and distinguished by mutual affection, hospitality, and benevolence. They take great care to bring up their children in the principles and precepts of religion. Their worship is confined neither to place nor time, and consists of singing, praying, and reading the scriptures. They have all things in common, and their only punishment for those who have transgressed the rules of the society is banishment from the community.

Education was much neglected in Russia till a late period; for though various schools, academies, and colleges were instituted, their benefits were confined to certain classes, and their influence was little felt on the general condition of society. A great number of schools have been established, in the different provinces, for the education of the peasants. The academies and universities have been improved or remodelled, and more amply endowed with funds, for the liberal support of the professors, and the better accommodation of the students, the number of whom has been greatly increased. The Russian language is a dialect of the Sclavonian, harsh and difficult of utterance, but it is said to possess great copiousness. The alphabet comprises thirty-six letters, formed of the Greek characters, with others apparently of native origin. The language, however, is far from being in a precise form.

Dr. Clarke says, 'in whatever country we seek original genius we must go to Russia for a talent of imitation. It is the scheme of Russian intellect; the principle of all their operations. They have nothing of their own; but it is not their fault if they have not every thing that others invent. Their surprising powers of imitation exceed all that has hitherto been known. The meanest Russian slave has been found adequate to the accomplishment of the most intricate and most delicate works of mechanism, to copy, with his single hand, what has demanded the joint labors of the best workmen in France or England.' Mr. James (in reference to this subject) Newly extricated from barbarism, the infant mind is seized with the desire of pursuing whatever strikes the fancy, or serves to interest or amuse, while the labors of more rigid science and learning are entirely thrown aside. We find at Petersburgh few men of abstruse acquirements, yet musicians, poets, and painters in abundance; and the nation has arrived in these arts, it must be confessed, at a highly reputable pitch of perfection. The works of art, though not fraught with the spirit of originality of the southern professors, yet display in almost every branch the most correct and refined taste; and even the natives shine, while the prejudices of their countrymen have denied them a fair share of patronage. The academy of arts is fostered by the superintendence of the crown; and, from the revenues allotted to it, it is well furnished with models from the antique, as well as other matters suited to its institution. The labors of the students exhibit some of the highest specimens of imitative excellence; their designs in architec

ture are of great merit, and their pictures possess a free style of execution, combined with chasteness and harmony of color, seldom equalled in any school.' Their music is framed in the Italian state. Many of the national airs are extremely simple and regular. The cultivation of science has been encouraged by the establishment of various institutions for that purpose; and several volumes of the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, founded at St. Petersburgh in 1725, have been distinguished by the excellence of their papers in the abstruse parts of mixed mathematics. The chief Russian universities are those of St. Petersburgh, Kiev, and Abo, with the colleges founded by Peter the Great at Moscow.

More than eighty distinct nations are, said to be included within the limits of this empire, and thus exhibit man in every state of his physical and moral condition, from the being who lives on the produce of the chase, clothed in the skins of his prey, and sheltered in the recess of a rock, or the wandering Nomade, who pitches his tent to-day, removes it to-morrow, and is entirely dependent upon the produce of his flock, through the humble peasant, the industrious husbandman, the ingenious mechanic, the wealthy merchant, the owners of almost unknown estates, and the proprietors of men, to the autocrat of all the Russias. The Sclavonians constitute the great body of the population of European Russia: this part of the empire embraces, beside Fins and Laplanders on the north-west, the Samoides on the north-east; the Cossacks on the south, and the Tartars of Taurida on the southeast. The Sclavonic Russians are middle-sized, robust, and vigorous, differing little in complexion from the inhabitants of Great Britain. Those towards the north are a more diminutive race. Their characteristic physiognomy, according to Mr. Tooke, is a small mouth and eyes, thin lips, and white teeth, the nose usually small and turned upwards, the forehead low, the beard thick and bushy, and the hair varying from dark brown to red. The general expression of the countenance is that of gravity rather than sprightliness, but indicating much good-nature. Accustomed to implicit obedience from the nature of the government, and trained to the endurance of hardships and privation from their manner of life, they seem neither to fear danger, nor shrink from fatigue, are subject to few diseases, and frequently attain old age. With the same general features the women have a delicate skin and a fine complexion, which they often destroy by a free use of paint. On looking at their faces you easily discern the Tartar and Kalmuc ingraftation upon the old Moscovite stock. The visage is short, the bones of the cheek high, the forehead projecting, and the eyes small. Their stature is commonly of the middle size; and, from their habits of life, both men and women are inclined to be very corpulent. When a tinge of the Georgian Poles and Circassians mingles with the Russian blood, the result is the most exquisite beauty.'

The whole people of Russia may be said to consist only of two distinct orders, the nobles and the peasants. The interval between these has been denominated a tiers etat; but, as far as

relates to all the practical purposes of life, it is filled up by foreigners, who once enjoyed all the lucrative branches of commerce, in which only a few of the natives as yet participate. The privileges of a nobleman consist in being exempted from military conscription, and from corporal punishment; in having the right to establish manufactories, to possess land and slaves, to impose taxes, and to inflict chastisement upon. them, &c. The charges on this class are to furnish recruits to the crown, and to pay a certain fee on the alienation of their property. Besides those who enjoy the above-mentioned rights by inheritance, these advantages are attached to certain stations in the civil and military lines; assessors in the chancery, for instance, and all officers of the army or navy, are called nobles, though the possession of slaves is limited to persons above the rank of major. The imperial companies of trade at Petersburg also participate in certain of these immunities, and are allowed to use carriages with one pair of horses. But even the nobility can neither marry, nor choose a profession, without the emperor's consent. Their estates are valued by the number of peasants they support. Several of the nobility possess more than 100,000 peasants; the property belonging to the family of Scheremeter consists of 125,000 slaves. Both in their privileges, and in their manner of life, these nobles seem to be exact copies of the great feudal barons of the middle ages. Many of them, in the country, have households consisting of 500 or 600 peasants, who perform all the various duties of butchers, bakers, tailors, shoemakers, footmen, valets, surgeons, musicians, and comedians; for which they are selected without discrimination. Their destinations are determined upon, and they are then qualified for them by the cudgel.'-James's Travels.

Dr. Clarke exhibits a lively picture of the effect of the extremes of poverty and riches in this empire.

To this poverty, and to these riches, are equally joined,' he says, 'the most abject meanness, and the most despicable profligacy. In sensuality they are without limits of law, conscience, or honor; in their amusements always children; in their resentment women. The toys of infants, the baubles of French fops, constitute the highest objects of their wishes. Novelty delights the human race; but no part of it seeks for novelty so eagerly as the Russian nobles. Novelty in their debaucheries; novelty in gluttony; novelty in cruelty; novelty in whatever they pursue. This is not the case with the lower class, who preserve their habits unaltered from one generation to another. But there are characteristics in which the Russian prince and peasant are the same. They are all equally barbarous. Visit a Russian, of whatever rank, at his country seat, and you will find him lounging about, uncombed, unwashed, unshaven, half-naked, eating raw turnips, and drinking quass. The raw turnip is handed about in slices, in the first houses, upon a silver salver, with brandy, as a whet before dinner. The real Russian rises at an early hour, and breakfasts on a dram with black bread. His dinner, at noon, consists of the coarsest and most greasy viands, the scorbutic effects of which

are counteracted by salted cucumbers, sour cabbage, the juice of his vaccinium, and his nectar quass. Sleep, which renders him unmindful of his abject servitude and barbarous life, he particularly indulges; sleeping always after eating, and going early to bed. The principal articles of diet are the same every where, grease and brandy.'

A uniform costume is seen in all parts of Russia, only differing in quality as it is worn in the country or the capital. In the one it is a sheepskin tunic, fastened round the waist with a girdle; in the other of cloth, plaited behind like a petticoat. The hair is cut in one shape, and the lower part of the face is always hid by a beard. The females retain much of Asiatic finery and gaudy robes. They wear a saraphan, or vest without sleeves, fitting close about the neck, down to the hips, and reaching to the feet. A row of close-set buttons usually adorns the front, and it is girt round the waist with a sash, to which the keys in common use are suspended. In some parts the females wear their hair bound up with a riband, or band, which crosses the forehead, and which is often decorated with pearls and beads of various colors: in others they wear caps made in the form of an upright crescent. In the vicinity of Moscow, and in some of the adjacent parts of the country, the cap has a front resembling that worn by the English jockey, studded with pearls or beads. The houses of the peasants are all of rough logs of wood, and in villages these are uniformly placed with their ends to the street. The walls have their interstices stopped with moss. The whole family sleep in the same room, reclining on mats, straw, or sheep-skins, and in the clothes they wear during the day. The favorite place at night is on the edge of the stove, which is raised above the floor with a few bricks.

A peculiar custom of Russia is the frequent use of the warm bath, with which the meanest hamlets are provided. The heat they sustain on these occasions would be almost insupportable to other people. It is usually from 100° to 130° of Fahrenheit's thermometer; and the vapor is renewed every five minutes, by water thrown on hot stones. Such is the effect of habit on the constitution of the Russians that they frequently sally forth from these steam caldrons, and plunge immediately into cold water, or roll in the snow; and male and female, old and young, not only of the same family, but even of the same village, all assemble in the bath together.

We must conclude this part of our paper with a sketch of the mode of travelling peculiar to Russia: we mean the extensive and skilful use of sledges. Sometimes a body, like that of a coach, is placed on a sledge, which unites the advantage of repose with the convenience of rapid motion. In this manner eighty or 100 miles a day are performed. And hence the Russian prefers the winter for his long journeys. In summer travelling is far more tedious and fatiguing by the badness of the roads, which are often composed of rough logs of wood, laid transversely on beams. Of his passage over one of the large rivers, Mr. James says, 'Nothing could be more strikingly wild than our passage

over the Ypoote. A raft of trees loosely pinned together was provided; a rope, made from the bark of trees, served for its draught; on either bank of the river rose a vast forest, not thick and luxurious, but bared in many a line by the progress of age and decay; amidst its shades were seen the white shirts and black fur caps of the Tartars, as they scampered along in the wantonness of sport, with their horses at full speed; their caravan, just arrived, was ranged on the river side, and the oxen were seen, every now and then, as the raft put off, plunging into the stream, and swimming to the opposite shore.'

SOUTHERN RUSSIA is largely inhabited by the Cossacks, who present the singular anomaly of a free people in the midst of abject slavery. As free as a Cossack is a common proverb in Russia. They have been acknowledged as a distinct race for more than nine centuries; and, according to their different emigrations and settlements, are at present distinguished by the names of MaloRussian Cossacks, Don Cossacks, Cossacks of the Black Sea, of the Volga, of Grebenskoy, of Orenburg, of the Ural Alps, and of Siberia. The subsequent remarks, chiefly confined to those within the European part of the empire, are principally derived from Dr. Clarke's Travels.

The ramifications of the Cossack republic, for such it is, extend into various parts of a vast despotic government, which considers it a matter of policy to guarantee their privileges. Nor do the Cossacks afford a greater contrast with the Russians in their political existence than in their personal appearance and individual character. These people are thus contrasted by the intelligent author above referred to, and who had excellent opportunities of witnessing the two nations. In reference to the Cossacks of the Don and the Black Sea, he says, "The Russian regards both with aversion, and affects to consider them beneath his notice, and unworthy of his society, for no other assignable reason than ignorance or envy. The Cossack is rich, the Russian poor. The Cossack is high-minded, the Russian abject.

The Cossack is for the most part clean in his person, honorable, valiant, often well informed, and possesses, with his loftiness of soul, a very noble stature; the Russian is generally filthy, unprincipled, dastardly, always ignorant, and rarely distinguished by any elevation of mind or body.' Many of those vast steppes in the vicinity of the Don, which appear as blanks in our best maps, are said to be filled with Cossack abodes. Stanitzas, or settlements, are formed along all the rivers by which they are intersected; and the late bishop Heber states that the procurator (who is a person appointed by the Russian government to superintend the execution of the laws) affirmed to him that the whole number of Cossacks liable to be called upon for active service amounted to 200,000 men. The entire male population is reckoned at 500,000. There is something extremely martial, and even intimidating, in the first appearance of a Cossack. His dignified and majestic look; his elevated brows and dark mustachoes; his tall helmet of black wool, terminated by a crimson sash, with its plume, and white cockade; his upright posture; the ease

and elegance of his gait; give him an air of great importance. We found them in considerable numbers at Kasankaia, lounging before their houses, and conversing in such large parties that it seemed as if we were entering their capital. Their dresses were much richer than any we had seen in Russia, although all were uniform. Each person's habit consisted of a blue jacket, edged with gold, and lined with silk, fastened by hooks across the chest. Beneath the jacket appeared a silk waistcoat, the lower part of which was concealed by the sash. Large and long trowsers, either of the same material as the jacket, or of white dimity, kept remarkably clean, were fastened high above the waist, and covered the boots. The sabre is not worn, except on horseback, on a journey, or in war. In its place is substituted a switch, or a cane, with an ivory head this every Cossack bears in his hand, as an appendage to his dress; being at all times prepared to mount his horse at a moment's notice. Their cap or helmet is the most beautiful part of the costume, because it is becoming to every set of features. It adds considerably to their height, and gives, with the addition of whiskers, a military air to the most insignificant figure. They wear their hair short round the head, but not thin upon the crown. It is generally dark, thick, and quite straight. The cap is covered by a very soft and shining black wool. Some of them have civil and military distinctions of habit, wearing, in time of peace, instead of the jacket, a large frock without buttons. The sash is sometimes yellow, green, or red, though generally black, and they wear large military gloves. There is no nation in the world more neat with regard to dress; and, whether young or old, it seems to become them all. A quiet life seems altogether unsuited to their disposition. They loiter about, having no employment to interest them; and, passionately fond of war, seem distressed by the indolence of peace. The territory of the Cossacks, which is almost entirely pasture land, is divided into stanitzas, or cantons; for many stanitzas now contain more than a single village. To each of these a certain portion of land and fishery is allotted by government, and an allowance of corn from Voronetz, and northwards according to the returned number of Cossacks. They are free from all taxes; even from those of salt and distilleries. The distribution of the land to individuals in each stanitza is settled by the inhabitants and their Ataman. This Ataman was chosen by the people, and was both civil and military commander of the place; but he is now appointed by the crown, and greatly diminished in power; formerly the Ataman himself marched at the head of his stanitza: now he merely sends the required contingent, which is put under officers named by the crown. The allotment of land and fishery which each Cossack possesses may be let out by him to farm, and often is so. The Cossack, in consequence of his allowance, may be called upon to serve for any term not exceeding three years, in any part of the world, mounted, armed, and clothed, at his own expense, and making good any deficiencies that may occur. Food, hay, and camp equipage, are furnished by go

vernment. Those who have served three years are not liable, at least not usually called upon, to serve abroad, except on particular emergencies. They serve, however, in the cordon along the Caucasus, and in the duties of the post and police. After twenty years they become free from all service, except the home duties of police, and assisting in the passage of corn barks over the shallows of the Don. After twenty-five years' service they are free entirely.' The Cossacks and other inhabitants of Tchérchaskoy export fish, iron, kaviar, and a little wine: their merchants going to war, like the rest of their countrymen, and the greater number of their superior officers being merchants. In the capital they live a pleasant and agreeable life, and have often public amusements, as balls and parties of pleasure.

The Cossacks are said to be favorably contrasted with the other inhabitants of Russia as to cleanliness both in their persons and houses. The dress of the females differs from all the other costumes of Russia; and its magnificence is displayed in the ornaments of the cap. The hair of the married women is tucked under the cap, which is adorned with flowers, or covered with pearls and gold. The dress of the young women is elegant; a silk tunic with trowsers fastened with a girdle of solid silver, yellow boots, and an Indian handkerchief round the head. The common dress of men in Tcherchaskoy is a blue jacket, with a waistcoat and trowsers of white dimity; the latter so white and spotless that they seem always new. We never saw a Cossack in a dirty suit of clothes. Their hands, moreover, are always clean, their hair free from vermin, their teeth white, and their skin has a healthy and cleanly appearance. Polished in their manners, instructed in their minds, hospitable, generous, disinterested, humane, and tender to the poor, good husbands, good fathers, good wives, good mothers, virtuous daughters, valiant and dutiful sons; such are the natives of Tcherchaskoy. In conversation the Cossack is a gentleman; for he is well informed, free from prejudice, open, sincere, and honorable.'

The following account of the religious ceremonies of this people is from Dr. Clarke:The morning after our arrival (at Axay) the general, who was commander-in-chief over all the district, including the town of Tcherchaskoy, the metropolis, came to Axay. The day was celebrated as a festival, in honor of the recovery of one of the emperor's children from the small pox inoculation. He sent us an invitation to dinner; and in the forenoon we accompanied him, with all the staff officers, to a public cere mony in the church. On entering this building we were much surprised at its internal magnificence. The screen of the altar was painted of a green color, and adorned with gold: before it was suspended a very large chandelier, filled with tapers of green wax. The screen, like the rest of the church, was covered with pictures : some of these were tolerably well executed, and all of them curious from their singularity and the extraordinary figures they served to represent. Here were no seats as in other Russian churches The general placed himself against a wall on the