upon the Bulgarians, who lay for the most part asleep cutting great numbers in pieces, and making himself master of their camp. Samuel and his son were dangerously wounded; and would have been taken, had they not concealed themselves among the dead. The next night they stole away to the mountains of Etolia. The following year the emperor entered Bulgaria at the head of a numerous and well disciplined army; defeated Samuel in a pitched battle, and took several strong cities. The emperor himself, however, at last, narrowly escaped being cut off in a narrow pass. From this danger he was relieved by the arrival of Nicephorus Xiphias, governor of Philippopolis, with a body of troops; who, falling upon the enemy's rear, put them to flight. Basilius pursued them close; and, having taken an incredible number of captives, caused their eyes to be pulled out, leaving to every hundred a guide with one eye, that he might conduct them to Samuel. This shocking spectacle so affected the king that he fell into a deep swoon, and died two days after. The emperor, pursuing his conquests, in the space of two years made himself master of most of the enemy's strong holds. He defeated also the successor of Samuel in several engagements; and, having at last killed him in battle, the Bulgarians submitted without reserve. The vast treasures of these princes were by Basilius distributed among his soldiers. Soon after the royal family surrendered themselves to the emperor, by whom they were received with the utmost respect. Ibatzes, however, a person nearly allied to the family, who had distinguished himself in an eminent manner during the whole course of the war, refused to submit. At last Eustathius Daphnomelus, whom Basilius had lately appointed governor of Achridus, the chief city of Bulgaria, undertook to secure him. Without communicating his design to any, he repaired, with two persons in whom he could confide, to the mountain on which Ibatzes had fortified himself. He hoped to pass undiscovered among the many strangers who flocked thither to celebrate the approaching feast of the Virgin, for whom Ibatzes had a great veneration. In this he found himself mistaken; for he was known by the guards, and carried before the prince. To him he pretended to have something of importance to communicate; but, as soon as Ibatzes had retired with him into a remote place, Daphnomelus threw himself suddenly upon him, and with the assistance of the two men whom he had brought with him, put out his eyes; and got safe to an abandoned castle on the top of the hill. Here they were immediately surrounded by the troops of Ibatzes; but Daphnomelus exhorting them now to submit to the emperor, by whom he assured them they would be well received, they congratulated Daphnomelus on his success, and suffered him to conduct the unhappy Ibatzes a prisoner to Basilius. The emperor was no less surprised than pleased at the success of this bold attempt; and rewarded Daphnomelus with the government of Dyrrhachium, and all the rich moveables of his prisoner. After this, having accomplished the entire reduction of Bulgaria, he returned to Constantinople with an incredible number of captives. All this time the Saracens VOL. XIX.

had at intervals invaded the Roman dominions, ́ and even attempted to make themselves masters of the capital. Their internal divisions, however, rendered them now much less` formidable enemies than they had formerly been; so that some provinces were recovered for a time out of their hands. In 1040 the empire was first invaded by the Turks; an enemy who, though not very powerful at that time, by degrees gathered strength sufficient to overthrow both the Roman and Saracen empires. See TURKEY. CutluMoses, nephew to Tangrolipix, the Turkish sultan, having been refused a passage through Media, in his retreat from Arabia, by Stephen the Roman governor, forced his passage and defeated the Roman army with so much ease that he told his uncle the province might be easily conquered. Tangrolipix accordingly sent Asan, another nephew, with an army of 20,000 mer. to reduce Media. The young prince entered that country, and committed every where dreadful ravages; but, being drawn into an ambush by the Roman generals, he was cut off with his whole army. Tangrolipix, not discouraged, sent a new army into Media of nearly 100,000 men, who, after having ravaged the country without opposition, laid siege to Artza, a place of great trade. Not being able to reduce it by any other means they set it on fire; and 150,000 of the inhabitants perished either by the flames or the sword. After this Abraham Halim, half brother to Tangrolipix, hearing that the Romans, reinforced with a body of troops under Liparites governor of Iberia, had taken the field, marched against them, and the two armies engaged with incredible fury. The victory continued long doubtful; but at length inclined to the Romans, who nevertheless did not think proper to pursue the fugitives, as their general Liparites was taken prisoner. The emperor despatched ambassadors with rich presents, and a large sum of money to redeem him, and at the same time to conclude an alliance with Tangrolipix. The presents the sultan received; but immediately returned them together with the money to Liparites, whom he set at liberty without ransom. Not long after Tangrolipix sent an ambassador to Constantinople: who having exhorted the emperor to submit to his master, and acknowledge himself his tributary, was ignominiously driven out of the city. Tangrolipix, highly affronted at this entered Iberia, while the emperor Constantine Monomachus was engaged in a war with the Patzinacæ, a Scythian nation. Having ravaged that country, he returned to Media, and laid siege for forty days to Mantzichierta, a place defended by a numerous garrison. The next spring Tangrolipix returned, and ravaged Iberia with the utmost cruelty, sparing neither sex nor age. But, on the approach of the Roman army, he retired to Tauris, leaving 30,000 men on the frontiers of the empire. Till the time of this emperor the provinces bordering on the countries of the barbarians had maintained, at their own charge, forces to defend them: and were on that account exempted from paying tribute; but, as Monomachus exacted from them the same sums that were paid by others, they were no longer in a condition to defend themselves.

C

From CONSTANTINE DUCAS TO THE CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE BY THE LATINS.-In 1067 died the emperor Constantine Ducas, having left the empire to his three sons, Michael, Andronicus, and Constantine; but, as they were all very young, he appointed the empress Eudocia regent, after having required of her an oath never to marry. He likewise obliged the senators solemnly to swear that they would acknowledge none for their sovereign but his three sons. No sooner, however, was he dead than the Turks, hearing that the empire was governed by a woman, broke into Mesopotamia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia. The empress was no way in a condition to oppose them, the greater part of the army having been disbanded in her husband's life-time: and a discontented party existed at home, who observed that the state of affairs required a man of courage and address at the helm, instead of a weak woman. Eudocia therefore determined to marry some person of merit, capable of defeating her enemies and when one Romanus Diogenes, a man of illustrious birth and beautiful person, was brought forth to receive sentence of death, she only gently upbraided him with his ambition and set him at liberty. Soon after she appointed him commander-in-chief of her forces. In this station he acquitted himself so well that the empress resolved to marry him if she could recover the writing in which her oath was contained out of the hands of the patriarch. In order to this she applied to a favorite eunuch; who told the patriarch that the empress was so taken with his nephew Bardas, that she was determined to marry and raise him to the empire, provided the patriarch absolved her from her oath, and convinced the senate of the law fulness of her marriage. The patriarch, dazzled with the prospect of his nephew's promotion, readily undertook to perform both. He first obtained the consent of the senate, by representing to them the dangerous state of the empire, and exclaiming against the rash oath which the jealousy of the late emperor had extorted from the empress. He then publicly discharged her from it, and restored the writing to her, exhorting her to marry some deserving object, who, being entrusted with an absolute authority, might be capable of defending the empire. Thus discharged from her oath, the empress, a few days after, married Romanus Diogenes. Being a man of great activity and military talent, he took the command of the army, and passed over into Asia, recruiting and inuring his forces on his march to military discipline. On his arrival, being informed that the Turks had surprised and plundered Neocæsarea, and were retiring with their booty, he hastened after, and came up with them on the third day, when he cut off great numbers of them, and easily recovered the booty. After this he pursued his march to Aleppo, which he retook, together with Hierapolis, where he built a strong castle. In his return, he was met by a numerous body of Turks, who attempted to cut off his retreat; and he pretended to decline an engagement through fear; but at tacked them afterwards with such vigor that he put them to flight at the first onset. After this several towns submitted to him; but, the season

being spent, he returned to Constantinople. The following year he passed over into Asia in the spring; and, being informed that the Turks had sacked Iconium, marched at once against them; when they retired in great haste. The Armenians, however, encouraged by the approach of the emperor's army, fell upon them in the plains of Tarsus, put them to flight, and stripped them both of their baggage and booty. The spring following the emperor once more entered Asia at the head of a considerable army. When the two armies drew near each other, Axan, the Turkish sultan, son of the famous Tangrolipix, sent proposals to Romanus for a peace. These were imprudently rejected, and a desperate engagement ensued; when, in spite of the utmost efforts of the emperor, his army was routed, and he himself wounded and taken prisoner. When this news was brought to Axan, he could scarcely believe it; but, being convinced by the appearance of the royal captive in his presence, he tenderly embraced and consoled him. You shall have no occasion,' said he, to complain of your captivity: I will not use you as my prisoner, but as an emperor.' The Turk was as good as his word. He lodged Romanus in a royal pavilion; assigned him attendants, with an equipage suitable to his quality; and discharged such prisoners as he desired. After he had for some days entertained his captive with extraordinary magnificence, a perpetual peace was concluded, and the emperor dismissed with the greatest marks of honor. He then set out with the Turkish ambassador for Constantinople, where the peace was to be ratified; but by the way he was informed that Eudocia had been driven from the throne by John the brother or Constantine Ducas, and Psellus a leading man in the senate, who had confined her to a monastery, and proclaimed Michael Ducas, his eldest son, emperor. On this intelligence Romanus retired to a strong castle near Theodosiopolis, where he hoped soon to be joined by his friends and adherents. But John, who had taken upon him to act as guardian to the young prince, sent Andronicus with a considerable army against him; on which he was obliged to fly to Adana, in Cilicia, where he was closely besieged, and at last compelled to surrender. Åndronicus carried his prisoner into Phrygia, where he fell dangerously ill, being, as was suspected, secretly poisoned. Here, at any rate, John ordered his eyes to be put out; which was done with such cruelty that he died soon after, in 1071, having reigned three years and eight months.

Axan was no sooner informed of the tragical end of his friend and ally than he resolved to invade the empire; and that not only with a design to plunder as formerly, but to conquer, and keep what he conquered. The emperor despatched against him Isaac Comnenus, with a considerable army; but he was defeated and taken prisoner by Axan. Another army was sent off under John Ducas, the emperor's uncle, who gained some advantages; but one Urselius revolted with the troops under his command, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor, and reduced several cities in Phrygia and Cappadocia. Against him John marched with all his

forces, suffering the Turks in the mean time to pursue their conquests; but, coming to an engagement with the rebels, his army was entirely defeated, and himself taken prisoner. Notwithstanding this victory, Urselius was so much, alarmed at the progress of the Turks that he not only released his prisoner, but joined with him against the common enemy, by whom they were both defeated and taken prisoners. Axan, however, was now prevented from pursuing his conquests by Cutlu-Moses, nephew to the late Tangrolipix. He had revolted against his uncle; but, being defeated by him in a pitched battle, had taken refuge in Arabia, whence he returned at the head of a considerable army to dispute the sovereignty. But, while the two armies were preparing to engage, the khalif of Babylon interposed his authority, and, by his mediation, an agreement was concluded that Axan should enjoy undisturbed the monarchy lately left him by his father, and that Cutlu-Moses should possess such provinces of the Roman empire as he or his sons should conquer. Both the Turkish princes thus turned their forces against the empire; and, before 1077, made themselves masters of Media, Lycaonia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia, fixing their capital at Nice. During all this time the emperors of Constantinople, as well as their subjects, seemed to be in a manner infatuated. They took no notice of the great progress of these barbarians: the generals were ambitious only of seizing the tottering empire; and, after it was obtained, spent their time in oppressing their subjects, rather than in attempting to repulse the enemy. At last Alexius Comnenus, having wrested the empire from Nicephorus Botoniates, in 1080, began to prepare for opposing so formidable an enemy with vigor; so that Solyman, the Turkish sultan, son and successor to Cutlu-Moses, despatched ambassadors with proposals of peace. These were at first rejected; but Alexius was at last glad to accept them, on hearing that Robert Guischard, duke of Puglia and Calabria, was making great preparations against him in the west. To this expedition Robert was incited by Michael Ducas. That prince had been deposed by Nicephorus Botoniates, and towards the end of the usurper's reign fled into the West, where he was received by Robert, who sailed with all his forces from Brundusium; and, landing at Buthrotum in Epirus, made himself master of that place, while his son Bohemond with part of the army reduced Aulon, a celebrated city of Albania. Thence they advanced to Dyrrhachium, which they invested both by sea and land; but met with a most vigorous opposition from George Palæologus, whom the emperor had entrusted with the defence of it. In spite of the utmost efforts of the enemy, this commander held out till the arrival of the Venetian fleet, by whom Robert's navy commanded by Bohemond was totally defeated, the admiral himself having narrowly escaped. After this victory the Venetians landed; and, being joined by Palæologus's men, fell upon Robert's troops with such fury that they destroyed their works, burnt their engines, and forced them back to their camp. As the Venetians were now masters at sea, the besieged were supplied with

plenty of provisions, while a famine began to rage in the camp of the enemy: a calamity soon followed by a plague, which in three months is said to have destroyed 10,000 men. Robert, however, did not abandon the siege, but pushed it with such vigor that the courage of the besieged began to fail; and Palæologus sent repeated messages to the emperor, stating that he should be obliged to surrender. On this Alexius marched in person to the relief of the city, but was defeated with great loss by Robert. The emperor himself with great difficulty made his escape, leaving the enemy master of his camp. Soon after this defeat the city surrendered; and Alexius, being destitute of resources, seized on the wealth of the churches and monasteries, which gave much offence to the clergy, and had nearly occasioned great disturbances in Constantinople. At the same time, entering into an alliance with Henry emperor of Germany, he persuaded him to invade the dominions of Robert in Italy. At first Henry met with great success; but was soon overcome and driven out by Robert. Bohemond, in the mean time, reduced several places in Illyricum; and, having defeated Alexius in two pitched battles, entered Thessaly, and set down before Larissa, till the emperor came to its relief. Soon after his arrival he drew a strong party of Bohemond's men into an ambuscade, and cut them almost all off. However, in a battle which was fought a few days after, Bohemond had the advantage; but his troops mutinying he was obliged to return to Italy. Alexius in his absence recovered several cities; and applied once more to the Venetians. By them he was assisted with a powerful fleet, which defeated that of Robert in two engagements; but being soon after surprised they were defeated with the 'oss of almost all their navy. Robert is said to have used his victory with great barbarity. The Venetians now equipped a second fleet; and, joining that of the emperor, fell unexpectedly upon Robert's navy in Buthrotum, sunk most of his ships, and took a great number of prisoners. Robert, while making preparations to revenge this defeat, was prevented by death; and his son Roger did not think proper to pursue so expensive a war.

This conflict was scarcely ended when the Scythians, passing the Danube, laid waste great part of Thrace, committing every where the greatest barbarities. Against them the emperor despatched an army under the command of Pacurianus and Branas. The latter engaged the enemy contrary to the opinion of his colleague; and his rashness caused the loss of the greater part of the army, who were cut off by the Scythians, together with two generals. On this Talicius, an officer who had signalised himself on many occasions, was appointed to the command. upon the enemy as they lay securely near Philippopolis, cut off great numbers of them, and obliged the rest to retire in confusion. Next spring, however, they returned in such numbers that the emperor resolved to march against them in person. Accordingly he set out for Adrianople, and thence to Lardea. Here, contrary to the advice of his best officers, he ventured a battle; in which he was totally defeated with the loss of vast

He fell

numbers of men, he himself escaping with difficulty. The next year he was attended with no better success, his army being entirely defeated with the loss of his camp and baggage. But in 1084 he retrieved his credit; and gave the Scythians such an overthrow that very few escaped. Notwithstanding they again invaded the empire in 1093. To this they were encouraged by an impostor called Leo, who pretended to be the eldest son of Romanus Diogenes. The young prince had been slain in a battle with the Turks; but the Scythians only wanted a pretence to renew the war. By a stratagem, however, Leo was murdered; and the Scythians, being afterwards overthrown in two great battles, were obliged to submit on the emperor's own terms. From 1083 the war had been carried on with the Turks with various success; but now an association was formed in the west against these infidels. This was occasioned by the superstition of the Christians, who now meditated a crusade for the recovery of the Holy Land. Had the western princes been assisted by the emperor of the east in this undertaking, the Turks had undoubtedly, been unable to resist them; but the Latins were looked upon by them as no less enemies than the Turks; and indeed whatever places they took from the infidels they never thought of restoring to the emperors of Constantinople, but erected a number of small independent principalities; which neither having sufficient strength to defend themselves, nor being properly supported by one another, soon became a prey to the Turks. In 1203 happened a dreadful fire at Constantinople, occasioned by some Latin soldiers having plundered a mosque which the Turks had been suffered to build. For this reason they were attacked by the infidels; who being much superior to them in number, the Latins were obliged to set fire to some houses to make their escape. The flame, spreading in an instant from street to street, reduced great part of the city to ashes. The emperor Isaac Angelus, who had been restored to his throne by the Latins, died soon after their departure from Constantinople, leaving his son Alexius sole master of the empire. The young prince, to discharge the large sums he had promised to the French and Venetians for their assistance, was obliged to lay heavy taxes on his subjects; and this, with the great esteem and friendship he showed to his deliverers, raised a general discontent among the inhabitants of Constantinople, who were sworn enemies to the Latins. This encouraged John Ducas (surnamed Murtzuphlus from his joined and thick eyebrows) to attempt the sovereignty. Unhappily he found means to put his treacherous designs in execution, and strangled the young prince with his own hands. After this he presented himself to the people; told them what he had done, which he pretended was to secure their liberties; and earnestly entreated them to choose an emperor who had courage to defend them against the Latins. On this he was instantly saluted emperor, but his usurpation proved the ruin of the city. The Latins resolved immediately to revenge the death of the young prince; and, as they had been so often betrayed and retarded in their expeditions

to the Holy Land by the emperors of Constantinople, to make themselves masters of that city, and seize the empire. Accordingly they mus tered all their forces in Asia, and, having crossed the straits, laid siege to Constantinople by sea and land. The tyrant, who was a man of great courage and experience, made a vigerous defence. The Latins, however, after having battered the walls for several days together with an incredible number of engines, made a general assault on the 8th of April 1204. The attack lasted from break of day till 3 P. M., when they were forced to retire, after having lost some of their engines, and a great number of men. The assault was nevertheless renewed four days after; when, after a warm dispute, the French planted their standard on one of the towers; which the Venetians observing, they quickly made themselves masters of four other towers, where they likewise displayed their ensigns. In the mean time three of the gates being broke down by the battering rams, and those who had scaled the walls having killed the guards and opened the gates, the whole army entered. The Greeks fled in the greatest confusion; and several parties of the Latins scouring the streets put all they met to the sword. Night put a stop to the dreadful slaughter, and next morning the Greeks entirely submitted; at the same time they were ordered to retire to their houses, the city being given up to be plundered by the soldiers. The Latins strictly enjoined their men to abstain from slaughter, to preserve the honor of the women, and to bring the whole booty into one place, that a just distribution might be made: but the Greeks had concealed their most valuable effects during the night; and many persons of the first rank had escaped, and carried along with them. immense treasures. Yet the booty, without the statues, pictures, and jewels, amounted to a sum almost incredible. As for Murtzuphlus he made his escape in the night; embarking in a small vessel with Euphrosyne, the wife of Alexius Angelus a late usurper, and her daughter Eudoxia, for whose sake he had abandoned his wife.

FINAL DOWNFALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. Constantinople continued subject to the Latins for fifty-six years, from A. D. 1205 till 1261: during which period Baldwin, earl of Flanders, Henry his brother, Peter de Courtenay, Robert, and Baldwin II. reigned successively as emperors. This last had reigned thirty-two years, when the Latins were expelled by Alexius Strategopulus, a person of illustrious family, and for his eminent services distinguished with the title of Cæsar. He had been sent against Alexius Angelus despot of Epirus, who now attempted to recover some places in Thessaly and Greece, from Michael Palæologus, one of the Greek emperors, who, since the capture of. Constantinople, had kept their court at Nice: and to try whether he could on his march surprise the imperial city. Alexius, having passed the straits, encamped at a place called Rhegium, where he was informed by the natives that a strong body of the Latins had been sent to the siege of Daphuksa, that the garrison was in great want of provisions, and that it would be easy to surprise Constantinople. Hereupon the Greek general resolved at all

events to attempt it; in which he was encouraged by some of the inhabitants, who, coming privately to his camp, offered to be his guides. He approached in the night, and some of his men scaled the walls without being observed; when, killing the sentries, they opened the gates to the rest of the army. The Greeks, rushing in, put all they met to the sword; and, to create more terror, set fire to the city in four different places. The Latins, concluding from this that the enemy's forces were far more numerous than they really were, did not so much as attempt either to drive them out, or to extinguish the flames. In this general confusion Baldwin, quitting the ensigns of majesty, fled with Justinian the Latin patriarch, and some of his friends, to the sea-side; where, embarking in a small vessel, he sailed to Euboea, and afterwards to Venice, leaving the Greeks in full possession of Constantinople. When the news of this surprising and unexpected success was first brought to Michael he could scarcely credit it; but, receiving letters from Alexius himself with a particular account of the event, he ordered thanks to be returned in all the churches, and couriers to be despatched with the agreeable news to all parts of the empire. Soon after he set out for Constantinople with the empress, his family, the senate, and nobility, to take possession of the imperial city. Having passed the straits he advanced to the golden gate, and continued some days without the walls, while the citizens were making the necessary preparations to receive him with suitable magnificence. On the day appointed the golden gate, which had been long shut, was opened, and the emperor entered amidst the acclamations of the multitude to the great palace. He was preceded by the bishop of Cyzicus, who carried an image of the Virgin, and followed by all the great officers, nobility, and chief citizens, pompously dressed. Public thanks were again returned in the church of St. Sophia, at which the emperor assisted in person. After this the emperor carefully surveyed the city, a duty which greatly allayed his joy. He saw the stately palaces and other magnificent buildings of the emperors lying in ruins; many capacious buildings that had been erected by his predecessors, at an immense charge, destroyed by fire, and other accidents of war; several streets abandoned by the inhabitants, and choked up with rubbish, &c. These objects only, however, excited in him a desire of restoring the city. In the mean time, looking upon Alexius as the restorer of his country, he caused him to be clad in magnificent robes; placed with his own hand a crown on his head; ordered him to be conducted through the city in triumph; decreed that, for a whole year, his name should be joined in the public prayers with his own; and commanded his statue to be erected on a stately pillar of marble. His next care was to repeople the city, many Greek families having withdrawn while it was held by the Latins. The former were recalled, and the latter were allowed many privileges to induce them not to remove. Great privileges were likewise granted to the natives of Venice and Pisa, which encouraged them to lay aside all thoughts of removing. Michael, however, being soon after

informed that the ci-devant emperor Baldwin II. had married his daughter to Charles king of Sicily, and given him Constantinople by way of dowry, he ordered the Genoese, who were become very numerous, to remove first to Heraclea, and afterwards to Galata. The Pisans and Venetians, who were not so numerous and wealthy, were allowed to continue in the city.

Michael, though he had caused himself to be proclaimed emperor, and was possessed of absolute sovereignty, was as yet only guardian to the young emperor John Lascaris, then about twelve years of age. But having now settled the state, and gained the affections both of natives and foreigners, he began to think of securing himself and his posterity in the empire; and cruelly ordered the eyes of the young prince to be put out. This piece of barbarity involved him in great troubles. The patriarch_immediately excommunicated him; and he would probably have been driven from the throne, had he not engaged pope Urban IV. to espouse his cause, by promising to submit himself and his dominions to the Latin church. Thus, indeed, he diverted the foreign storm; but caused fresh domestic disturbances, not only in Constantinople, but throughout the empire. In 1283 Michael VII. died, and was succeeded by his son Andronicus II. His first step was to restore the ancient Greek ceremonies. But he thus involved himself in greater difficulties: though Michael had not been able fully to reconcile his Greek subjects to the Latin ceremonies, yet he had in some degree accomplished his purpose. The Latins had obtained a considerable footing in the city, and defended their ceremonies with great obstinacy; so that the empire was again thrown into a ferment. All this time the Turks had been continuing their encroachments on the empire. They were now, however, very successfully opposed by Constantine the emperor's brother: but his valor rendered him suspected, in consequence of which he was thrown into prison, along with several persons of distinction. On the removal of this great commauder, the Turks, under the famous Othoman, made themselves masters of several places in Phrygia, Caria, and Bithynia; and among the rest of the city of Nice. To put a stop to their conquests, the emperor despatched against them Philanthropenus and Libadarius, officers of great experience. The former gained some advantages over the enemy; but, being elated with his success, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor. This rebellion, however, was soon suppressed, Philanthropenus being betrayed by his own men: but the Turks, taking advantage of the subsequent commotions, not only extended their dominions in Asia, but conquered most of the islands in the Mediterranean; and infested the coasts of the empire, to the utter ruin of commerce. From this time the eastern empire tended fast to dissolution. After the revolt of Philanthropenus, the emperor could no longer trust his subjects, and therefore hired the Massagetes: but they were first defeated by his enemies, and afterwards turned their arms against him. He next applied to the Catalans, who behaved in the same manner; and, having ravaged the few places he