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lows have arisen in consequence of the parties not previously agreeing as to what a summer fallow is. In England generally, or at least formerly, a fallow was a portion of land left a year without culture or cropping: unless being once or twice ploughed can be denominated the former, and an abundant growth of coarse grasses and weeds can constitute the latter. The jacheres of the French are the same thing. In Scotland and the best cultivated districts a summer fallow is a portion of land which is begun to be cultivated after the crop is removed in autumn, and is frequently, as need requires, ploughed, harrowed, and otherwise comminuted, and freed from stones, weeds, inequalities, &c., till the autumnal seed-time of the following year it is thus for twelve months in a state of constant tillage and movement. The result is that the land is thoroughly freed from roots of weeds; from many seeds of weeds, which are thus made to germinate and are then destroyed; and from many eggs of insects which are thus hatched, but, being without plants to nourish them in their larva state, speedily die. The land is also thoroughly pulverised, and the top, bottom, and middle, mixed together; stones are picked out; inequalities unfavorable to surface drainage removed or lessened, and various other useful objects attained. Such a fallow can no more be compared with what usually passes under that name than the plough of Virgil with that of Small.'

East Lothian stands, we believe, at the head of the Scottish counties for excellent farming: and here fallowing, introduced at the beginning of the last century, seems to be practised in its greatest perfection. The sixth earl of Haddington, we are told, was the first proprietor, and John Walker, of Beanston, near Dunbar, the first farmer upon this principle. He took the hint from some English travellers, while they spent a night at his house, and with whom he had conversation upon the subject, so much to his satisfaction that he made an experiment upon six acres the following summer, which he carried through in spite of the animadversions of his neighbours, who were divided in their opinions as to the sanity of his mind, or the stability of his circumstances. The result of the experiment gave them a better opinion of both, and the return was so abundant as to induce him to extend his next year's fallow break to twenty acres ; soon after which the practice began to spread, and, so early as the year 1724, fallowing upon all the deep strong soils was common throughout the county, and has continued to be so ever since. The practice of the county is thus described in the General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 419.

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Invariably, after harvest, the land intended for being summer fallowed in the ensuing year gets an end-long ploughing, which ought to be as deep as the soil will admit, even though a little of the till or subsoil is brought up. This both tends to deepen the cultivated or manured soil, as the fresh accession of hitherto uncultivated earth becomes afterwards incorporated with the former manured soil, and greatly facilitates the separation of the roots of weeds during the

ensuing fallow process, by detaching them completely from any connexion with the fast subsoil. This autumnal ploughing, usually called the winter furrow, promotes the rotting of stubble and weeds; and, if not accomplished to wards the end of harvest, must be given in the winter months, or as early in the spring as possible. In giving this first ploughing, the old ridges should be gathered up, if practicable, as in that state they are kept dry during the winter months; but it is not uncommon to split them out or divide them, especially if the land had been previously highly gathered, so that each original ridge of land is divided into two half ridges. Sometimes, when the land is easily laid dry, the furrows of the old ridges are made the crowns of the new ones, or the land is ploughed in the way technically called crown-and-fur. In other instances two ridges are ploughed together, by what is called casting, which has been already described. After the field is ploughed, all the inter-furrows, and those of the headlands, are carefully opened up by the plough, and are afterwards gone over effectually by a laborer with a spade, to remove all obstructions, and to open up the water furrows into the fence ditches, wherever that seems necessary, that all moisture may have a ready exit. In every place where water is expected to lodge, such as ditches or hollow places in the field, cross or oblique furrows are drawn by the plough, and their intersections carefully opened into each other by the spade. Wherever it appears necessary, cross cuts are also made through the head ridges into the ditches with a spade, and every possible attention is exerted, that no water may stagnate in any part of the field.

'As soon as the spring seed-time is over the fallow land is again ploughed end-long. If formerly split, it is now ridged up; if formerly laid up in gathered ridges, it is split or cloven down. It is then cross-ploughed; and, after lying till sufficiently dry to admit the harrows, it is harrowed and rolled repeatedly, and every particle of the vivacious roots of weeds brought up to view, carefully gathered by hand into heaps, and either burnt on the field or carted off to the compost midden. The fallow is then ridged up, which places it in a safe condition in the event of bad weather, and exposes a new surface to the harrows and roller; after which the weeds are again gathered by hand, but a previous harrowing is necessary. It is afterwards ploughed, harrowed, rolled, and gathered as often as may be necessary to reduce it into fine tilth, and completely to eradicate all root weeds. Between these successive operations, repeated crops of seedling weeds are brought into vegetation and destroyed. The larvæ likewise of various insects, together with an infinite variety of the seeds of weeds, are exposed to be devoured by birds, which are then the farmer's best friends, though often proscribed as his bitterest enemies. Some writers on husbandry have condemned the use of the harrow and roller in the fallow process, alleging that frequent ploughing is all that is necessary to destroy root-weeds, by the baking or drying of the clods in the sun and wind; but experience has ascertained that fre

quently turning over the ground, though absolutely necessary while the fallow process is going on, can never eradicate couch-grass or other root-weeds. In all clay soils, the ground turns up in lumps or clods, which the severest drought will not penetrate so sufficiently as to kill the included roots. When the land is again ploughed, these lumps are simply turned over and no more, and the action of the plough serves in no degree to reduce them, or at least very imperceptibly. It may be added that these lumps likewise enclose innumerable seeds of weeds, which cannot vegetate unless brought under the influence of the sun and air near the surface. The diligent use, therefore, of the harrow and roller, followed by careful hand-picking, is indispensably necessary to the perfection of the fallow process.

When employed to reduce a strong obdurate soil, not more than two of the common sort of harrows should be yoked together, because they are apt to ride and tumble upon each other, and thus impede the work. It may also be remarked that on rough soils harrows ought to be driven as fast as the horses can walk; because their effect is in direct proportion to the degree of velocity with which they are driven: and the harrow-man's attention should be constantly directed to prevent these implements from riding upon each other, and to keep them clear of every impediment, from stones, lumps of earth, clods, and grass roots. In ordinary cases, and in every case where harrowing is meant for covering the seed, and the common implement in use, three harrows are the best yoke, because they fill up the ground more effectually than when a smaller number is employed; some of the improved forms, calculated to cover the breadth of two or more of the old harrows by one frame, are only fit for flat ridges; or for working dry lands in which ridging is not requisite.

6. Of the usual crops.-The preceding part of this treatise is all preparatory to the capital object of a farm, that of raising plants for the nourishment of man and other animals. These (see AGRICULTURE, par. 84) are of two kinds; culmiferous and leguminous; differing widely from each other. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, rye-grass, are of the first kind; of the other kind are peas, beans, clover, cabbage, and many others. The propagation of plants is naturally divided into three subdivisions:-1st. Plants cultivated for fruit; 2d. Plants cultivated for roots; 3d. Plants cultivated for leaves.

SECT. I.-PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR FRUIT. 1. WHEAT takes the lead among plants cultivated for fruit. A sandy soil is thought too loose; the only chance for a crop is after red clover, say some writers, the roots of which bind the soil. Rye is a crop much fitter for sandy soil than wheat; and like wheat is generally sown after a summer-fallow. Sow wheat as soon as the ground is ready. When sown too early, however, it is too forward in spring, and apt to be hurt by frost; when sown a month too late, it has not time to root before frost comes on, and frost spews it out of the ground. The greater part of the wheat crop throughout Britain is probably sown upon fallowed land. When

it succeeds turnips consumed on the ground, or clover cut for hay or soiling, it is commonly sown after one ploughing; but upon heavier soils, or after grass of two or more years, the land is ploughed twice or three times.'

Setting of wheat, or dibbling, is a method which is reckoned one of the greatest improvements in husbandry that was made during the last century. It seems to have been first suggested by planting grains in a garden from curiosity, by persons who had no opportunity of extending it to a lucrative purpose. Nor was it attempted on a larger scale, till a farmer near Norwich began it upon less than an acre of land. For two or three years only a few followed his example; and these were generally the butt of their neighbours. They had, however, considerably better corn and larger crops, which, together with the saving of seed, engaged more to follow them. Experiment established the practice, and was the means of introducing it generally among the intelligent farmers of a very large district.

The lands on which this method was found particularly prosperous were either after a clover stubble, or on which trefoil and grass-seed were sown the preceding year. These grounds, after the usual manuring, were once turned over by the plough in an extended flag or turf, at ten inches wide; along which a man, called a dibbler, with two setting-irons somewhat bigger than ram-rods, but considerably bigger at the lower end, and pointed at the extremity, walked backwards along the turf and made the holes about four inches asunder every way, and one deep. Into these holes the droppers (women, boys and girls) dropped two grains, which is quite sufficient. After this a gate, bushed with thorns, was drawn by one horse over the land, and closed the holes. By this mode, three pecks of grain are sufficient for an acre; and, being immediately buried, it is equally removed from vermin or the power of frost. The regularity of its rising gives the best opportunity of keeping it clear from weeds, by weeding or hand-hoeing. Sir Thomas Beevor of Hethel-Hall, in Norfolk, soon found the produce to be two bushels per acre more than from the wheat which is sown; and, having much less small corn intermixed with it, the sample was better, and always fetched a higher price. This method, too, saves to the farmer and to the public many pecks of seedwheat.

In light lands a very dry time prevents dibbling, as the holes made with the instruments will be filled up again with the mould as fast as the instrument is withdrawn. So, again, in a very wet season, on strong and stiff clays, the seeds in the holes cannot be properly covered by the bushes drawn over them. But these extremes of dry and wet do not often happen, nor do they affect lands of a moderately consistent texture, or both light and heavy soils at the same time, so that the general practice is in fact never greatly impeded by them.

In the Philosophical Transactions for 1768 we meet with an extraordinary experiment for propagating wheat, of which the following is an abstract:-On the 2d of June, 1766, Mr. C. Miller (son of the celebrated gardener of this.

name) sowed some grains of the common red wheat; and on the 8th of August, a single plant was taken up and separated into eighteen parts, and each part planted separately. These plants having pushed out several side-shoots, about the middle of September, some of them were taken up and divided, and the rest between that time and the middle of October. This second division produced sixty-seven plants. These plants remained through the winter, and another division of them, made between the middle of March and the 12th of April, produced 500 plants. They were then divided no further, but permitted to remain. The plants were in general stronger than any of the wheat in the fields. Some of them produced upwards of 100 ears from a single root. Many of the ears measured seven inches in length, and contained between sixty and seventy grains. The whole number of ears which, by the process abovementioned, were produced from one grain of wheat, was 21,109, which yielded three pecks and three quarters of clear corn, the weight of which was forty-seven pounds seven ounces; and, from a calculation made by counting the number of grains in an ounce, the whole number of grains was about 576,840. There was only one general division of the plants made in the spring. Had a second been made, Mr. Miller thinks, the number of plants would have amounted to 2000. The ground was a light blackish soil, upon a gravelly bottom; and consequently a bad soil for wheat. One half of the ground was well dunged, the other half had no manure. There was, however, no difference discoverable in the vigor or growth of the plants. It is evident that the expense and labor of setting in the above manner by the hand, will render it impracticable upon a large scale.

A correspondent of the Bath Society, therefore (Robert Bogle, esq.), to extend the practice, proposed the use of the harrow and roller until some better implements be invented. This method occurred to him from attending to the practice usual with farmers, of harrowing their fields after the grain is sprung up. Upon investigating the principles upon which these practices are founded, they said, that after very heavy rains, and then excessive dry weather, the surface of their lands was apt to be caked, the tender fibres of the young roots were thereby prevented from pushing, and of course the vegetation was greatly obstructed; in such instances they found very great benefit from harrowing and rolling.' This reasoning he owns to be well founded, but contends that the benefit arising from harrowing and rolling is not derived from pulverising entirely, but from subdividing and enabling the plants to tiller, as it is termed. The harrow,' he observes, certainly breaks the incrustation, and the roller crumbles the clods; but the harrow removes many of the plants from their original stations; and, if the corn has begun to tiller at the time it is used, the roots will be in many instances subdivided, and then the application of my system of divisibility comes into play. The roller then serves to plant the roots which have been torn up the harrow.' On this the society observe, that the teeth of a harrow are too large

to divide roots so small and tenacious as those of grain; and, whenever such roots stand in the line any tooth makes, they will, if small, be only turned on one side by the earth yielding to their lateral pressure, or, if large, the whole root will be drawn out of the ground. The principal uses, therefore, derived from harrowing and rolling these crops are, opening the soil between the plants, earthing them up, breaking the clods, and closing the earth about their roots. I have conversed,' says Mr. Bogle, much with many practical farmers, who all admit that my plan has the appearance not only of being practical, but advantageous. I have also seen in the ninth number of Mr. Young's Annals of Agriculture the account of an experiment which strongly corroborates my theory. It was made by the Rev. Mr. Pike of Edmonton. From this, and other experiments which have been made under my own eye, I foresee clearly that the system is practicable, and will certainly be productive of great benefit, should it become general. Besides the saving of nine-tenths of seed in the land sown broad-cast, other very important advantages will attend the setting out of wheat from a seed-bed, such as an early crop; the certainty of good crops; rendering a summer fallow unnecessary; saving dung; and having your wheat perfectly free from weeds without either hand or horse-hoeing: 500 plants in April produced almost a bushel of grain. My gardener says, he can set 1000 plants in a day, which is confirmed by the opinion of two other gar deners.'

Excellent wheat according to Brown (Tracts on Rural Affairs) may be grown on light soils, with the exception of soft sands. Such soils, however, are not constitutionally disposed to the growth of that grain; nor will they, under any management, bear such a frequent repetition of it as those already mentioned. Summer fallow on them may safely be dispensed with; because a crop of turnips, which admits every branch of the cleaning process to be more perfectly executed than even a naked or bare fallow does, may be profitably substituted. Wheat here comes in with propriety after turnips, though, in general cases, it must be sown in the spring months, unless the turnips are stored; in which case it may be sown in November; or it may be sown after clover, for the fourth crop after the rotation; or in the sixth year, as a way-going crop, after drilled peas and beans, if the rotation is extended to that length. But, take it any way, it is scarcely possible to raise wheat so extensively upon light soils, even where they are of the richest quality, as is practicable upon clays; nor will a crop of equal bulk upon the one return so much produce in grain as may be got from the other. To enlarge upon this point would only serve to prove what few husbandmen will dispute, though, it may be added, that, on thin sands, wheat ought not to be ventured, unless they are either completely clayed or marled, as it is only with the help of these auxiliaries that such a soil can gain stamina capable of producing wheat with any degree of success.

'On soils really calculated for wheat, though

in different degrees, summer fallow is the first. and leading step to gain a good crop or crops of that grain. The first furrow should be given before winter, or as early as other operations upon the farm will admit; and every attention should be used to go as deep as possible; for it rarely happens that any of the succeeding furrows exceed the first one in that respect. The number of after-ploughings must be regulated by the condition of the ground and the state of the weather; but, in general, it may be observed that ploughing in length and across, alternately, is the way by which the ground will be most completely cut, and the intention of fallowing accomplished. It has been argued that harrowing clay soils, when summer fallowed, is prejudicial to the wheat crop; but, without discussing this point (such a discussion being unnecessary), it may merely be stated that in a dry season it is almost impracticable to reduce real clays, or to work them too small; and that even in a wet one, supposing they are made surface-smooth, they will, when ploughed up again, consolidate into clods or big lumps after forty-eight hours' drought, and become nearly as obdurate as ever. It is only on thin soils, which have a mixture of peat earth, and are incumbent on a bottom impervious to water, that damage is at any time sustained by over harrowing. Such are generally of a weak texture, and may be broken down with facility by the roller and harrow. If caught by much rain, before the pores are in some measure closed, the moisture is greedily absorbed; and, being prevented from going downwards by the hardness of the subsoil, the whole surface becomes a kind of mortar or paste, unless previously well ridged up; which, to a certain extent, prevents the consequences from being dangerous. These evils, however, must be submitted to by the possessors of such soils, if they want to have them sufficiently fallowed and prepared in a proper manner; for, without reducing them, couchgrass, and especially moss, with which they are commonly stored, cannot be eradicated. If they are reduced in the early part of the season, the danger is small; but to break them down in the latter part ought always to be avoided, unless called for by imperious necessity. When wheat is sown after beans it rarely happens, in this northern climate, that more than one ploughing can be successfully bestowed. Before this is given it is advantageous to cross-harrow the land, which levels the drills, and permits the ploughing process to be executed with precision. Almost in every case the ridges should be gathered up, so that the furrows may be well cleared out, and the plants preserved from injury during the inclement winter season. Clover land should be neatly ploughed, and well laid over, so that the roots of the grasses may be buried and destroyed; for it frequently happens that crops of wheat, after clover and rye-grass, are greatly injured by inattention to the ploughing process. In short, sowing wheat after clover may be considered as the most hazardous way in which that grain can be cultivated.'

The manures best calculated for wheat, are now generally allowed to be animal matters and lime.

It is certain according to Sir H. Davy, Chaptal, &c., that wheat will not thrive on any soil that does not contain lime. Professor Thaer says it absorbs more nourishment from the soil than any of the corn tribe; and he calculates (hypothetically, as he allows) that for every 100 parts of nutriment in a soil sown with this grain, forty will be carried off by the crop. (Principes Raisonneés, tom. iv. art. Froment). At the same time too much manure on land in good tilth is very apt to cause the crop to lodge; and hence some people think it improper to dung rich clays or loams when fallowed, and choose rather to reserve that restorative till the succeeding season, when they are prepared for a crop of drilled beans. Delaying the manuring process for a year is attended with many advantages; because good land, fully wrought, contains such a principle of action within itself, as often causes the first wheat crop to be lodged before it is filled; under which circumstance, the produce is diminished both in quantity and quality. This delay in manuring is, however, attended with disadvantages; because, when dung is kept back till the end of autumn or beginning of winter, to be laid on the stubbles, the weather is often so wet that it cannot be carted on without subjecting the land to injury from poaching, whilst the labor in laying it on is also increased. On thin clays, or even upon soils of the other description not in high condition, there can be no doubt but that the end of summer, and upon summer fallow, is the most proper time for manuring them, though it will be found that an improvident expenditure of dung, on such occasions, ought always to be steadily avoided. Where manure is abundant, wheat alternating with a green crop, or indeed any corn crop and a green crop may be grown alternately for any length of time. (Farm. Mag. vol. xxiii. p. 298).

Wheat is sown as far north as Petersburgh and in Sweden, and will endure a great deal of cold during winter, if sown in a dry or well drained soil. Moderately moist weather before the flowering season, and after the grain is set or formed, is favorable; but continued heavy rains after the flowering season produces the smut. The dry frosty winds of February and March, and even April in some districts, are more inju rious to the wheats of Britain than any other weather. Hoar frosts, when the plant is in the ear, produce blights; and mildews often result from or follow sultry winds and fogs. Cold, in the blossoming and ripening season in July, even unaccompanied by wind or rain, produces an inferior grain, greatly deficient in gluten; and heat the contrary. The most valuable wheat of Europe, according to Sir H. Davy, is that of Sicily; which he found to contain much more gluten than any other.

The season of sowing wheat on clays, according to the able writer in the Ency. Brit. Supple ment, is generally the latter end of autumn; but on early turnip soils it is sown after clover or turnips, at almost every period from the beginning of September till the middle of March; but the far greater part is sown in September and October. For summer wheat, in the southern

districts, May is sufficiently early, but in the north the last fortnight of April is thought a more eligible seed-time. In the cultivation of spring-sown winter wheat, it is of importance to use the produce of spring-sown grain as seed, as the crop of such grain ripens about a fortnight earlier than when the produce of the same wheat winter-sown is employed as spring seed. According to Brown, this process is indispensably necessary on every soil; otherwise smut, to a greater or less extent, will, in nine cases out of ten, assuredly follow. Though almost all practical farmers are agreed as to the necessity of pickling, yet they are not so unanimous as to the modus operandi of the process, and the article which is best calculated to answer the intended purpose. Stale urine may be considered as a safe and sure pickle; and, where it can be obtained in a sufficient quantity, is commonly resorted to. The mode of using it does not, however, seem to be agreed upon; one party contends that the grain ought to be steeped in the urine, another considers it as sufficient to sprinkle the urine upon it. Some, again, are advocates for a pickle made of salt and water, sufficiently strong to buoy up an egg, in which the grain is to be thoroughly steeped. But whatever difference of opinion there may be as to the kind of pickle that ought to be used, and the mode of using it, all admit the utility of mixing the wetted seed with hot lime, fresh slaked; and this, in one point of view, is absolutely necessary, so that the seed may be equally distributed. It may be remarked that experience justifies the utility of all these modes, provided they are attentively carried into execution. There is some danger from the first; for, if the seed steeped in urine is not immediately sown, it will infallibly lose its vegetative power. The second, viz. sprinkling the urine on the seed, seems to be the safest, if performed by an attentive hand; whilst the last may do equally well, if such a quantity of salt be incorporated with the water as to render it of sufficient strength. It may also be remarked that this last mode is oftener accompanied with smut, owing no doubt to a deficiency of strength in the pickle; whereas a single head with smut is rarely discovered when urine has been used. A mode of preparing wheat for sowing, recently adopted in the south of Scotland, is thus described :-"Take four vessels, two of them smaller than the other two, the former with wire bottoms, and of a size to contain about a bushel of wheat, the latter large enough to hold the smaller within them. Fill one of the large tubs with water, and, putting the wheat in the small one, immerse it in the water and stir and skim off the grains that float above, and renew the water as often as is necessary, till it comes off almost quite clean. Then raise the small vessel in which the wheat is contained, and repeat the process with it in the other large tub, which is to be filled with stale urine; and in the mean time wash more wheat in the water tub. When abundance of water is at hand, this operation is by no means tedious; and the wheat is much more effectually cleansed from all impurities, and freed more completely from weak and unhealthy grains and

seeds of weeds, than can be done by the winnowing machine. When thoroughly washed and skimmed, let it drain a little; then empty it on a clear floor or in the cart that is to take it to the field, and sift quick-lime upon it, turning it over and mixing it with a shovel, till it be sufficiently dry for sowing.' (Supplement, Ency. Brit. art. Agriculture).

The modes of sowing wheat are either broadcast, drilling, ribbing, or dibbling. The first mode is the most general, and the seed is for the most part covered by harrowing; but no more harrowing, Brown observes, should be given to fields that have been fallowed, than what is necessary to cover the seed, and level the surface. Ground which is to lie in a broken down state through the winter suffers severely when an excessive harrowing is given. It is a general practice in most of the southern counties, and even on opposite soils, when wheat is sown broadcast, to plough it in with a shallow furrow. This is done even after beans-and on clover leys.

Drilling is also practised, and is becoming more general on lands infested with annual weeds. A machine which sows at three different intervals, according to the judgment of the farmer, of twelve, ten and a half, or nine inches, is much approved of in the northern districts. It deposits six, seven, or eight rows at once, according as it is adjusted to one or other of these intervals, and the work is done with ease and accuracy when the ridges are previously laid out of such a breadth, twelve and a half feet, as to be sown by one bout: the machine going along one side of such a ridge, and returning on the other, and its direction being guided by one of its wheels, which thus always runs in the open furrow between the ridges. If the ten and a half inch interval be adopted, and it is the most common one in that country, the machine sows seven rows at once, or fourteen rows on a ridge of twelve feet and a half. But the space between the rows varies in some parts still more than this machine admits of; it ought not, however, to be so narrow as to prevent hand hoeing, even after the crop has made considerable progress in growth; and it cannot advantageously be so wide as to admit the use of any effective horse-hoe.

Ribbing is a mode of sowing in some places, by which a drill machine is dispensed with. The seed is scattered with the hand in the usual broad-cast manner, but, as it necessarily falls for the most part in the furrows between the ribs, the crop rises in straight parallel rows, as if it had been sown by a drill machine: after sowing the ribs are levelled by harrowing across. plan has nearly all the advantages of drilling in so far as regards exposure to the rays of the sun, and the circulation of air among the plants; but, as some plants must always rise between the rows, it is not quite so proper when horse-hoeing is required.

This

Of dibbling Mr. Loudon says, notwithstanding the advantages of saving seed, as well as some others which are generally reckoned undeniable, it is asserted by some very judicious farmers that dibbling of wheat on the whole is not really a profitable practice. It is part

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