distinct from any physical force; nor should we say that "when once life is incarnated in matter, it produces effects which in their turn act as causes," and so forth. We can trace the circumstances under which an animal lives, but, apart from religious ideas, we have not the faintest conception of why it lives, nor will physical science help us in the research. In his great work on Logic, John Stuart Mill remarks, that although it would be an important addition to our knowledge, "if proved, that certain motions in the particles of bodies are among the conditions of the production of heat or light; that certain assignable physical modifications of the nerves may be the conditions not only of our sensations and emotions, but even of our thoughts; that certain mechanical and chemical condi tions may, in the order of Nature, be sufficient to determine to action the physiological laws of life;" still, "it must not be supposed that by proving these things, one step would be made towards a real explanation of heat, light, or sensation." In the same spirit, Bacon warns us "not to suffer the understanding to jump and fly from particulars to remote and most general axioms (such as are termed the principles of arts or things)," and he adds, "we must not even add wings, but rather lead and ballast to the understanding, to prevent its jumping or flying, which has not yet been done; but whenever this takes place we may entertain greater hopes of the sciences." Had M. Bouchut followed the Baconian advice he would not have told us that the "three attributes common to everything endowed with life are, (1.) impressibility, or the unconscious faculty of feeling external impressions without any participation of the nervous system; (2.) corpuscular movement, automatic movement, or autocynesy, that is to say, the faculty possessed by the elements of living matter to move themselves in order to form species, and to do this without dependence on the properties of any structure; (3) promorphosis, or faculty of giving to amorphous elements a form determined beforehand, and conformable with the type of the species." An "unconscious faculty of feeling" is not intelligible: a faculty or facility, for the words are the same in origin and meaning, can be neither conscious nor unconscious, and an unconscious feeling is no feeling at all. In describing the second alleged property of every living thing there is equal confusion. What is meant by the elements of living matter?" Are the atoms of oxygen, carbon, and so forth, declared to possess an automatic power, independent of the structure to which they belong, "to move themselves in order to form species?" "Impressibility" is affirmed to be "an attribute of life which exists in all tissues, which it animates independently of their textures." The physiologist does not know life apart from some living thing, and when a writer addresses us like M. Bouchut, he is substituting metaphysical guess-work for scientific fact. Life, as we know it, consists in actions that are obviously physical, and in operations that bear no analogy to any physical process. It is probably a complete mistake to represent life as controlling or resisting mechanical, chemical, or electrical forces. While an animal lives, its tissues are built up and taken to pieces according to a regulated method which is compatible with its continued existence, but all the physical operations of its life proceed in strict accordance with physical laws. If its albumen does not coagulate at a temperature that causes other albumen to undergo that change, it is not because a mysterious "principle" determines otherwise, but because the chemical conditions of coagulation exist in one case and not in the other. The power of maintaining heat is purely physical, and combustion follows the same laws in the body of the man as in the furnace of the locomotive. The power of resisting heat is equally physical, resulting from evaporation and other processes which experimental science can trace. When the body is dead, the amount and direction of the forces is altered, and then, of course, the changes that ensue are of a different kind. It is incorrect to say that no change has taken place except the escape or departure of an immaterial principle. The nerves no longer transmit, nor do the nerve centres generate, those physical forces that determine the actions of structure that is alive. Mr Lionel Beale discovers a complete circuit in the nervous "En dehors de toute propriété de structure." Other system, strengthening the analogy with phenomena of an electrical kind. physiologists trace a connection between the consumption of phosphorus and the amount of thought performed by the brain. Here we have two sorts of incidents, the connection of which no physical investigation can elucidate. The changes in the brain, and in the secretions, no doubt, follow chemical and other physical laws, and are simply the results of the direction and intensity of forces of the same character as those which preside over the material world. They thus form fitting subjects for the research of the physiologist. But when we arrive at the question of why thought is connected with a brain, and why changes in the condition of that brain precede or accompany mental manifestations, our inquiry belongs to a totally different sphere. No polarization of particles, or oxidation of phosphorus can help us here. The ultimate cause is the will of Deity; and if we seek for more we must do so in the direction of utility, and correspondence with that great scheme of creation, of which so small a part is unfolded to our gaze. Let physical science give up the search for the why, and tell us how the universe proceeds. We start, and we conclude, with the conviction that an Intelligent and Benevolent Will is in all and over all, and in tracing the wonderful operation of what we call secondary causes, we exalt our conceptions of the only real Cause that animates and guides the mighty whole. Magazin für die gesammte Thierheilkunde. Edited by Gurlt and I.—ON TYPHUS IN THE PIG. By C. SCHMIDT, Veterinary Surgeon at For years a disease has prevailed in a plague form amongst pigs, which appears to be common to every part of Germany. It is much like a form of anthrax, and perhaps holds a middle position between this and other blood diseases. Schmidt does not regard it as anthrax, but rather to possess the character of typhus. The symptoms of this disorder are as follows:-The animals are seized rather suddenly, the owner of the herd not having, as a rule, observed any premonitory signs which usually exist, and are--general dulness, hanging of the ears, a desire on the part of the animal to hide itself or get into shady places, or creep beneath straw. There is a total loss of appetite, and no desire to drink; the animals lie constantly, and prefer lying on their belly; continue to bury themselves in straw, and will take no food or drink with the exception of a little milk. As a rule, the animals are very quiet, but only in exceptional cases, are very wild in consequence of cerebral irritation. Not unfrequently there are attempts to vomit, and mucus, mixed with bile, is thrown up, or, in some cases, food. The vomited material has usually a very sour odour. The excrements are at times of a normal character, but at others dry, covered with mucus, or there may be a slight diarrhoea, and the fæces of a dark colour. The urine is pale. The animal has a staring look, indicative of pain. The tail, which is usually curled, drops. The pulse is very frequent, and the heart beats are barely perceptible. Great pain is indicated by pressing on the abdominal organs. One of the leading symptoms consists in weakness in the hind extremities, which occur in all patients from the beginning of the disease. Another charac teristic sign, is a peculiar jerking, or spasmodic breathing, which occurs, however, only in those animals which after death indicate venous congestion of the lungs. The staggering gait, in which the animal's limbs are seen to cover each other, and the subsequent paralysis of the hind extremities, are very constant phenomena in the course of the disease. One veterinary surgeon reports having seen paralysis of both fore extremities, but M. Schmidt had never witnessed this. The breathing, which, as stated above, is sometimes jerking, is audible and associated with a gasping, broken and painful cough. The voice is at first loud: the animal can scream out, but afterwards becomes hoarse. On opening a blood-vessel by cutting the ear or tail, a fair amount of apparently normal blood is obtained in the first stage, but afterwards it flows like treacle. In the larger number of patients, a few hours before death there are ecchymoses of the skin and especially under the belly, on the inner surface of the hind extremities, on the back, beneath and over the ears, &c., indeed over the whole body, along the back to the tail, and all this without any appearance of erysipelas. The red colour disappears on pressing with the finger, and the animal experiences pain under such pressure. The skin becomes swollen, or vesicles form on its surface. The colour varies from a light red to blueish black. On many animals this red colour is wanting, and does not occur even after death, whether the pigs be well or ill nourished, young or old. In the rapid cases the mucous membranes are of a blueish red colour, and in the chronic cases of a dirty yellow colour. The temperature of the body is at first increased, but afterwards lowered. Schmidt has seen blood oozing through the skin in two cases. The blood appeared through the cutis, accumulated in small drops about the hairs. In both the cases Schmidt saw the transudation of blood through the skin appeared a critical sign, as both animals recovered after it. The disease usually terminates in death, or in partial convalescence. A fatal termination often occurs from the third to the sixth hour from the commencement of the disease, or death may occur at a later period, but always without convulsions. The convalescent stage is long, and health is imperfectly restored after it. Although animals may regain their appetite, they are apt to fall backward, suffer from cachectic disorders. They suffer from more or less complete paralysis of the hind extremities, or of rheumatic joint disease, which is attended with much pain. The prognosis is unfavourable, though M. Schmidt has been unsuccessful of late with a new plan of treatment he has adopted. Post-mortem appearances.-The animals dying of this disease are of a brown, violet, or bluish-red colour over their whole bodies, or more particularly in the parts specially mentioned as discoloured during life. The capillaries of the skin are filled with blood wherever there is a change of colour of the skin. The cutis is swollen, and an exudative or yellowish serosity is thrown out in the vicinity of the blood-vessels. The peritoneum and intestines are normal, though there may be streak-like spots of blood, imbibition, or venous congestion. The liver and spleen are congested, of a dark colour, and the parenchyma of the liver, more particularly, is soft, but still healthy. The vena porta is always full of dark semi-fluid blood. In the abdomen and thorax the amount of fluid is increased, and is of a reddish colour; a similar red fluid is seen in the pericardium. The kidneys and other abdominal organs are sound. The lungs are either quite normal or much congested. In the latter case, they are of a dark red colour, and more firm or compact than usual. In many cases there are ecchymosis on the pleura. The heart is flabby, the auricles of the ventricles filled sometimes with fluid, and at others with coagulated blood, and the ventricles the same. The inner lining membrane of the large blood vessels, the brain, and spinal cord, often show signs of ecchymosis. The blood is constantly of a darker colour than normal, and it is usually semifluid, and not coagulable to any extent. It coagulates slowly, and does not form a firm clot. Schmidt says that the above post-mortem appearances are not those of anthrax, but they are very similar to those of a disease which Dr Spinola describes in his work as Erysepelatous Anthrax. There are other reasons, however, to adduce in proof of the disease not being anthrax. Firstty, The disease occurs in districts where it is notorious that anthrax never appears in other animals. If it were anthrax, why should it attack the pig in preference to other animals more predisposed to the disease? Secondly, There is not a case known of the communication of this disease from sick pigs to other animals, or to human beings, and surely the opportunities have not failed. Schmidt has inoculated dogs, cats, poultry, and a horse without any result. Men have eaten the flesh prepared in all ways, and have never suffered Thirdly, The specific lesions of anthrax are absent in this disease. Fourthly. The disease has a constant typical form, whereas anthrax varies greatly in different cases. Fifthly. No evidence has been adduced to show that a contagium occurs in this disease, but rather that it does not. The causes of this disease, like those of many similar affections, are involved in mystery; the disease, however, occurs as an enzootic during hot seasons. Sporadic cases occur in winter, when Reaumur's thermometer stands at 20°. Small lean pigs are as readily attacked as older and fat ones. All breeds are affected. alike. The nature of the locality has little influence, as outbreaks occur on highlands as on lowlands, on wet or dry soils. It occurs suddenly, carries off many animals, and again suddenly ceases. Schmidt's observations would lead to regard the disease as due to peculiarities of food and water, to sudden sinking of the temperature, and it occurs more frequently in animals in the open fields than in those inclosed in styes. The disease does not spread by contagion. In the treatment of this disease it is essential to counteract the morbid changes of the blood, and to place animals beyond the influences operating in the production of the disease. These are not points easily attained. Schmidt condemns the common practice in Germany of giving these animals emetic doses of vetratrum albrum, or the potassio tartrate of antimony; he also condemns the frequentlyresorted-to blood-lettings and cold ablutions. Animals treated thus, especially if they have previously vomited, seldom recover. Schmidt condemns Spinola's method of treatment, he condemns the universal acids, tannin, salts of iron, of copper, &c. Death always resulted when M. Schmidt treated these animals after this system, and in rare instances only did the pigs live, but then partially paralysed in the hind extremities. Schmidt adopted the system of administering an active purgative, as follows: The result was most satisfactory. Of twenty treated thus in one day only one died. All the rest recovered completely. Bleeding, cold ablutions, and emetics had been, however, given to these pigs, with the exception of the one that died. Since his first experiment Schmidt has been successful in all cases, except those where there was already considerable paralysis of hind quarters, or where the cases were of old standing, and lastly, when the red discoloration was very extensive; in such cases radical cures were rarely obtained. The dose of the medicine depended of course on the size of the pig, and also according to the condition of the alimentary canal. When diarrhoea had existed prior to the application of remedies, croton oil was not given; small doses of calomel were administered in mucilage, with a preparation of nux vomica. This lead to a mild action of the bowels without inducing absolute purgation. When, however, purgation is obtained, the medicine is stopped. The animals must be kept in a cool and healthy stable, with dry straw. So soon as any thirst is experienced, sour milk, bran and water, may be given, and later, as the appetite is regained, lettuce, green fruits, &c., should be allowed. Preventive measures consist in change of diet, cleaning the styes, and if the disease is prevailing to a great extent, sulphuric acid or muriatic acid must be given in small doses in water thrice daily. The sale of the flesh of these animals has not been attended with bad results to the health of those who have eaten it, but Schmidt condemns such sale, especially where there is reason to suspect a prevalence of anthrax. IL-ON PENTASTOMA TÆNIOIDES OF THE SHEEP. By Dr FÜRSTENBERG, Ir is well known that Leuchart' has recently shown by experiment that Pentastomum denticulatum, which is found not unfrequently in bodies of rabbits, is the partially developed Pentastoma tanioides which occurs frequently in the nasal sinuses of the dog. Moreover, Leuchart has shown that when this parasite has attained maturity in the dog's head, ripe eggs are thrown off to ensure the multiplication of the species. These eggs are given off and discharged with the mucus in the act of sneezing, &c., and they are then taken up by animals, on whose bodies the embryos undergo a certain stage of development. The pentastomum had not been seen in its undeveloped state as scolex in all our domestic animals. It had been found in the abdominal cavity of goats and cats. In the first, the parasite was the pentastomum denticulatum, and in the second, pentastomum fera. Colin, however, has recently found it in the sheep and dromedary.2 In the mesenteric glands of the last-named animals, there exists an asexual linguatula, which acquires a generative apparatus on changing its habitation. These parasites penetrate the gland, are lodged in a capsule which contains several individuals. As the containing capsule enlarges, disease of the gland tissue occurs, and changes into a mass of cells not unlike ordinary lymph corpuscles. The parasite of the mesenteric glands is developed from the eggs of the parasite of the nasal sinuses of the dog, which are gathered up by the sheep with their food. The worm only remains a definite time in its first abode, as it pierces the glands and leaves a cavity which soon gets filled up by plastic tubercular material. When a dog or wolf eats the entrails of animals in whose glands the parasites exist, the embryo may adhere to the lips and nose, and then pass into the nasal cavities. Fürstenberg says that the linguatulæ pass up the nose rapidly, and fix themselves by these hooks to prevent being expelled in the act of sneezing. These worms which so suddenly change their habitat, increase in size, and their generative organs are developed in less than two months. They must remain a year in the nose of the dog, in order to attain complete development. There can scarcely be a doubt, says Fürstenberg, that the linguatulæ found in mesenteric glands of sheep, belong to the same species as those discovered in cysts in the lungs of rabbits, and whose complete development in the dog Leuckart has witnessed. Fürstenberg 'has therefore confirmed Colin's observations, and added some new facts as to the escape of the linguatulæ from the mesenteric glands. MISCELLANEA. DISEASE AMONG CATTLE AT VIENNA.-An epidemic disease, which for the last six months had been raging among the cattle in the different provinces of the Austrian empire, has now shown itself at Vienna. In two of the large dairies of the faubourgs, by which the city is principally supplied with milk, sixteen cows which had been seized with the malady have been destroyed by the authorities. The effect of the disease is felt even in the skin trade. The breeders, fearing to lose their cattle, slaughter them in large numbers, thus causing a glut of skins in the market. 1 Bau und Entwickelung der Pentastomen. Von R. LEUCHART. Liepzig and Heidelberg. 1860. * See Edinburgh Veterinary Review, vol. iii. p. 682. |