academy at Florence, and admitted to the friendship of all the men of genius and learning in that city. He wrote Dialogues, in the panner of Lucian, which were translated into Latin, French, and English; he also wrote some comedies, and Dissertations on the poems of Dante and Petrarch.

GELLIBRAND (Henry), a laborious astronomer of the last century, was born in 1597. Though he was not without good views in the church, yet he became so enamoured with mathematical studies, that on the death of his father he became a student at Oxford, contented himself with his private patrimony, and devoted himself solely to them. On the death of Mr. Gunter, he was recommended by Mr. Briggs to the trustees of Gresham college, for the astronomical professorship there; to which he was elected in 1697. His friend Mr. Briggs dying in 1630, before he had finished his Trigonometrica Britannica, it was finished by Gellibrand at his request. He wrote several other things, chiefly tending to the improvement of navigation, and died in 1636.

GELLIUS (Aulus), a celebrated ancient grammarian. He was born in the reign of Trajan, and died in the beginning of that of Marcus Aurelius. After studying grammar and rhetoric at Rome, he went to Athens; and on his return to Rome was made a judge. His Noctes Atticæ, Attic Nights, is a curious and valuable work. It has gone through a variety of editions, and been translated into English by Mr. Beloe.

GELLY. s. (gelatus, Lat.) Any viscous body; viscidity; glue; gluy substance (Dryden).

GELT. s. (from geld.) A castrated animal; gelding: not used (Mortimer).

GELT. The part. pass. of geld.

GELT. S. Tinsel; gilt surface (Spenser). GEM. s. (gemma, Latin.) 1. A jewel; a precious stone of whatever kind (Shakspeare). 2. The first bud (Denham).

To GEM. v. a. (gemma, Latin.) To adorn, as with jewels or buds.

To GEM. v. n. (gemmo, Lat.) To put forth the first buds (Milton).

GEM, in mineralogy. (See GEMMA), under which article we shall notice the greater number of those which are most esteemed, or of greatest notoriety, and which, in a classical arrangement, belong to this genus.

In common language, however, the term is used more loosely; so loosely indeed that it is difficult to give a definition of its meaning. Nature," says Boetius de Boot, in his treatise De Gemmis," forms some stones large and others small; of the small, some are of rare occurrence, others are common; of the rare, some are hard, others are soft; of the hard, some are beautiful and pleasant to the sight, others are mean. The beautiful merit the name of gems. Hence the word gem signifies a natural stone of small size, rare, hard, and beautiful."

Between precious stones and gems the an

cients appear to have made a difference; comprehending under the former term such hard and beautiful, but imperfectly crystallised stones, as agate, cornelian, onyx, and other species of chalcedony, as well as various species of jasper; restricting the word gem to those stones which, on account of their minuteness, extreme hardness, and brilliant lustre, were worn in rings, as the preceding were as seals, either in the state in which nature presents them, or after being eut and polished. Some stones, however, as the topaz and amethyst, being commoner and in larger pieces than most of the other gems, held a kind of middle rank between these and the precious stones, being sometimes employed as materials to engrave upon, and sometimes used plain for necklaces, rings, and similar ornaments.

All these we have separately described in their proper places: it only remains for us, therefore, under the present article, to give a list of those which are denominated gems by modern lapidaries: which list we shall arrange in four classes according to their relative estimation; premising, however, that this order is subject to some variations, from the casual plenty or scarcity of any particular kind, and from the caprice of fashion.

The diamond and the oriental ruby constitute the first class. Of these a very small diamond is more valuable than a ruby of equal weight: but rubies of ten carats or more being much rarer than diamonds of equal weight, bear a somewhat higher price in the market. The second class of gens contains the emerald, star-stone, oriental girasol, sapphire, spinal, and balais rubies, oriental topaz, oriental amethyst, and noble opal. In the third rank are found the jargon, cat's-eye, oriental chrysolite, hyacinth, and peridot. Those in the fourth and lowest class are often engraved upon, and form the most valuable seal-stones: they are the beryl, or aqua marina, Brazilian topaz, Saxon topaz, Syrian garnet, Bohemian garnet, and European amethyst.

GEMS (Artificial). See the article GLASS (Coloured).

GEMARA,.or GHEMARA, the second part of the Talmud. The word, gemara, is commonly supposed to denote a supplement; but in strictness it rather signifies complement, perfection: being formed of the Chaldee, gemar or ghemar, to finish, perfect, or complete any thing. The rabbins call the Pentateuch simply the law: the first part of the Talmud, which is only an explication of that law, or an application thereof to particular cases, with the decisions of the ancient rabbins thereon, they call the Mischna, i. e. second law and the second part, which is a more extensive and ample explication of the same law, and a collection of decisions of the rabbins posterior to the Mischan, they call Gemara, q. d. perfection, completion, finishing; because they esteem it the finishing of the law, or an explication beyond which there is nothing farther to be desired.

The Gemara is usually called simply Tal

mud, the common name of the whole work. In this sense we say, there are two Gemaras or Talmuds, that of Jerusalem and that of Babylon, though in strictness the Gemara is only an explication of the Mischna, given by the Jewish doctors in their schools; much as the commentaries of our school-divines on St. Thomas, or the master of the sentences, are an explication of the writings of those authors. A commentary, Mons. Tillemont observes, was written on the Mischna by one Jochanan, whom the Jews place about the end of the second century: but Fa. Morin proves, from the work itself, wherein mention is made of the Turks, that it was not written till the time of Heraclius, or about the year 620; and this is what is called the Gemara or Talmud of Jerusalem, which the Jews do not use or esteem much because of its obscurity. They set a much greater value on the Gemara or Talmud of Babylon, begun by one Asa; discontinued for seventy-three years, on occasion of the wars with the Saracens and Persians; and finished by one Josa about the close of the seventh century. See TALMUD.

GEMATRIA, or GAMETRIA, the first kind of artificial cabbala used by the Jews. The word is formed from the rabbinical IIebrew, by corruption of the Greek. Gematria is a geometrical or arithmetical method of explaining these words, whereof there are two kinds; the first bearing a more immediate relation to arithmetic, and the latter to geometry. The rules of the gematria are too frivolous to justify our enlarging upon them.

GEMBLOWES, a town of Brabant, in the Austrian Netherlands, 22 miles S.E. of Brussels. Lat. 50. 37 N. Lon. 4. 51 E. GEMELLIPAROUS. a. (gemelli and pario, Latin.) Bearing twins.

To GEMINATE. v. a. (gemino, Lat.) To

double.

GEMELLUS. (gamellus, from gemimus, double, having a fellow.) In myology. See GASTROCNEMIUS and GEMINI.

GEMINATE, in botany, double. Applied to leaves, stipules, and peduncles. See DOUBLE.

GEMINATION. s. (from geminate.) Repetition; reduplication (Boyle).

GEMINI, in astronomy, the twins; a constellation, or sign of the zodiac, the third in order, representing Castor and Pollux: it is marked thus, . The more ancient Egyptians, and Eastern nations, depicted this sign by a couple of young kids, which were afterwards changed to two children. The constellation is now reckoned to contain 84 stars of the first six magnitudes, i. e. 1. 2. 4. 8. 13. 56.

GEMINI. In anatomy. Gemelli of Winslow. This muscle hasbeen a subject of dispute among anatomists since the days of Vesalius. Some describe it as two distinct muscles, and hence the name it has gotten of gemini. Others contend that it ought to be considered as a single muscle. The truth is, that it consists of two portions, which are united together by a tendinous and fleshy membrane, and afford a

passage between them to the tendon of the obturator internus, which they inclose as it were in a purse. These two portions are placed under the gluteus maximus, between the ischium and the great trochanter.

The superior portion, which is the shortest and thickest of the two, arises fleshy from the external surface of the spine of the ischium; and the inferior, from the tuberosity of that bone, and likewise from the posterior sacroischiatic ligament. They are inserted, tendinous, and fleshy, into the cavity at the root of the great trochanter. Between the two portions of this muscle, and the termination of the obturator intermus, there is a small bursa mucosa, connected with both, and with that part of the capsula of the joint which lies under the gemini.

This muscle assists in rolling the os femoris outwards, and prevents the tendon of the obturator internus from slipping out of its place while that muscle is in action.

GEMINIANI (Francesco), a celebrated performer on the violin, and musical composer, was born at Lucca in Italy, about 1680. He came to England in 1714, where he was introduced to George I. at whose court he met with friends. But he was a man of most independent mind, and refused several offers of services from the great. He was, however, capricious, and passed his life in various countries; sometimes in distressed circumstances. He died in 1762. The following list comprises the whole of his publications, except two or three articles of small account. Twelve solos for a violin, opera prima; six concertos in seven parts, opera seconda; six concertos in seven parts, opera terza; twelve solos for a violin, opera quarta; six solos for a violincello, opera quinta; the same made into solos for a violin; six concertos from his opera quarta; six concertos in eight parts, opera settima; rules for playing in taste; a treatise on good taste; the art of playing the violin; twelve sonatas from his first solos, opera undecima; Ripieno parts to ditto; lessons for the harpsichord; Guida Armonica; supplenient to ditto, the art of accompaniment, two books; his first two operas of concertos in score; and the Enchanted Forest. Of his solos the opera prima is esteemed the best. Of his concertos some are excellent, others of them scarce pass the bounds of mediocrity. The sixth of the third opera not only surpasses all the rest, but, in the opinion of the best judges of harmony, is the finest instrumental composition extant.

GE'MINOUS. a. (geminus, Lat.) Double

GEMMA, in botany, a gem or bud, See BUD.

GEMMA, in oryctology, a genus of the class earths, order siliceous: consisting of silex, and a larger proportion of alumine, with sometimes a little carbonat of lime and oxyd of iron; meagre to the touch, of a high internal lustre, very rarely opaque or subopaque, never hardish or soft, breaking into indeterminate fragments, parasitic, shining in the dark, attracting light bodies when heated by friction: not melting with alkalies. Seventeen species; found in different parts of the globe,

1. G. rubinus. True or oriental ruby; perfect corundum, Very hard, ponderous, red, of a foliated texture, which in a contrary di rection is conchoidal, not melting or losing its lustre in the fire. Found in Brazil and the East Indies, principally in the kingdoms of Peru and Ceylon, and is, except the diamond, the most precious of all the gems: the colour varies a little, being carmine red, sometimes verging to violet, mixt carmine, and hyacinth red, red and white, red and blue, or orange red; is found in angular pieces in small pebbles, or in regular six-sided pyramids, joined to and opposed base to base; seldom exceeding an inch in size: when finely powdered, melting with borax, though with difficulty into a green glass.

2. G. sapphirus. Sapphire; oriental sapphire. Perfect corundum, Very hard, somewhat ponderous, blue, making a white streak, of a slightly incurved lamellar texture, not fusible, but losing its colour in a strong heat. Found in Brazil, the Indies, Persia, Bohemia, and near Puys in Velay, sometimes crystallized, sometimes in rounded masses, the angles being worn off by friction; and is next in value to the ruby: colour sky-blue, or the shades of Prussian and indigo-blue, with sometimes white specks; the crystals are strong, shining, and exhibit a foliated texture 1ransversely striate; they become colourless when heated with microcosmic salt, and emit a great light while burning.

3. G. topazius. Topaz. Imperfect corundum. Nearly very hard, ponderous, yellow, of a foliated texture, which is conchoidal when broken transversely, not fusible per se, but losing all its colour in a strong heat. Found in India, Brazil, Russia, Saxony, Bohemia, &c. generally adhering to other substances, though sometimes detached with the angles worn off; colour a higher or deeper yellow, most commonly honey-coloured, some imes verging to white or greenish; its fragments sometimes irregular, sometimes granular or prismatic; the prisms longitudinally striate, solitary, in pairs, or in threes, disposed in a cruciate manner; often clustered; rarely foursided, rectangular or oblique angular; loses its colour only in a very high degree of heat; melts with borax into clear glass.

4. G. hyacinthus, Hyacinth, Zircon, Jargon. Hard; lanellar; of a peculiar yel Jowish-red, in four-sided prisms, terminated on both sides by a four-sided pyramid, not fuVOL. V.

sible per se, but losing its colour in a strong heat. Found in the East, and in Bohemia, in the form of pebbles, in obtuse angular pieces; colour yellowish-red, with a mixture of brown the crystals are small, have a smooth surface, and foliated texture: they are imitated by heat. ing rock crystals, and putting then into a solution of dragon's blood.

5. G. alanbandica, Found in the river Goetch near Lengefeld, in the form of rounded granulations, from the size of a pea to that of a bean. When exposed in a strong heat surrounded with wood ashes, loses its red colour, and is often sold for the diamond.

6. G. aquamarina. Aquamarine, Hard, pellucid, lamellar, pale sea-green, not fusible per se, breaking into trapezoidal fragments. Found in Brazil, India, Siberia, Saxony, Bos hemia, sometimes amorphous, sometimes crystallized in equiangular six-sided prisms, longitudinally striated its longitudinal fracture rather conchoidal, its transverse fracture foliated; colour rarely a blueish-green: it decrepitates when heated, and is generally a little discoloured, but does not melt; becomes electric by friction, when one of its poles is attractive, the other repulsive.

7. G. spinallus. Spinell and balass ruby, Hard, of a pale red colour, inclining to orange; not fusible, but losing its colour in a strong heat. Found in Ceylon in six-sided crystals.

8. G. euclasius. Euclase. Hard, pellucid, lamellar, green, in four-sided oblique prisms, whose edges are variously truncate, and whose faces are oblique. Found in Peru: very brittle, and sufficiently hard to scratch quartz.

9. G. schorlites, Schorlite. Hardish, somewhat ponderous, diaphonous, of a green, ish or yellowish-white colour, which is not altered by the fire; not fusible per se. Found in Brazil and Saxony, with mica or quartz.

10. G. beryllus. Beryl. Hard, of a blue, green colour, not altering its colour or fusible by heat, of a conchaceous texture, which is foliated when broken transversely, in six sided prisms, which are usually longitudinally striate, Found in the mountains of Saxony, Siberia, &c. in quartz, granite, wolfrain, and other matrices; its crystals of various magnitude and pellucidity, sometimes with a greenish, blueish, or yellowish tinge.

11. G. chrysolithus. Chrysolite, fardish, pellucid, lightish, of a green colour, which va nishes in a strong heat, fusible by the blowpipe, and sparkling when melted; of a conchoidal texture. Found in Brazil, Ceylon, Siberia, Transylvania, and Bohemia, in lar fragments, grains, and crystallized.

angu

12. G. chrysoberyllus. Chrysoberyl. Hard, petlncid, green, highly shining internally, of a conchaceous texture. Found in Brazil and Ceylon, in round masses, about the size of a pea or crystallized.

13. G smaragdus, Emerald. Hard, pelLucid, lightish, grass-green; when heated to 120° of wedgewood, becomes blue, but reco vers its green colour when cold; melts before the blow-pipe; of a conchoidal texture. Found

in the mountains of Egypt and Ethiopia, in Peru, Russia, and on the confines of Persia.

14. G. granatus. Garnet, Hard, ponderous, red, of unequal texture, preserving its colour in a low heat; melting, in a stronger heat, into a brown, opaque, spumid mass. There are many varieties of this species, which differ in colour, or pellucidity, or angularity. Found in Britain, and various other parts of Europe, Madagascar, Ethiopia, India, Syria, sometimes in mass, sometimes crystallized. The other three species, which are scarcely worth particularizing, are,

15. G. granadillus. Red schorl. 16. G. foranus. Gem granite. 17. G. rubicellus. Brazilian ruby. GEMMARY. a. (from gem.) Pertaining to gems or jewels (Brown).

GEMMATION, in botany, budding. The construction of the bud; of leaves, stipules, petioles, or scales.

GEMMEOUS. a. (gemmeus, Latin.) 1. Tending to gems (Wood). 2. Resembling gems. GEMMEUM, in Roman antiquity, properly signifies a vase or cup, cut out of a single

stone.

GEMMINGEN, a town of the palatinate of the Rhine, in Germany. Lat. 49. 6 N. Lon. 9. 13 E.

GEMMI PAROUS, in botany, producing gems or buds.

GEMONIÆ SCALE, or, GRADUS GEMONII, among the Romans, was much the same as a gallows, or gibbet, in England.

GEMOTE, a Saxon word, denoting a meeting or assembly.

GENDARMES, or GENS D'ARMES, q. d. men of arms, a term used among the French for a select body of horse-guards; because they succeeded the ancient men of arms, who were armed at all points, and thence were called gendarmes.

GENDARMES (Scots), were originally instituted by Charles VII. of France about the middle of the fifth century, and formed a part of his guard; in which station also they acted under other princes. It was their prerogative to take precedence of all the companies of the gendarmerie of France, and on particular occasions they even preceded the two companies of the king's mousquetaires. The sons of the Scottish monarchs were the usual captains of this company; and, after Mary's accession to the throne, its command belonged to them as a right.

GENDER. s. (genus, Latin.) 1. A kind; a sort: not in use (Shakspeare.) 2. A sex.

GENDER, among grammarians, a division of nouns or names to distinguish the two sexes. This was the original intention of gender: but afterwards other words, which had no proper relation either to the one sex or the other, had genders assigned them, rather out of caprice than reason; which is at length established by custom. Hence genders vary according to the languages, or even according to the words introduced from one language into another Thus arbor in Latin is feminine, but arbre in

French is masculine; and dens in Latin is masculine, but dent in French is feminine.

The oriental languages frequently neglect the use of genders, and the Persian language has none at all. The Latins, Greeks, &c. generally content themselves to express the different genders by different terminations; as bonus equus, a good horse; lona equa, a good mare, &c. But in English we frequently go further, and express the difference of sex by different words: as boar, sow; boy, girl; buck, doe; bull, cow; cock, hen; dog, bitch, &c. We have only about twenty-four feminines, distinguished from the males by the variation of the termination of the male into ess; of which number are abbot, abbess; count, countess; actor, actress; heir, heiress; prince, princess, &c. which is all that our language knows of any thing like genders. The Greek and Latin, besides the masculine and feminine, have the neuter, common, and the doubtful gender; and likewise the epicene, or promiscuous, which, under one single gender and termination, includes both the kinds.

To GENDER. v. a. (engendrer, French.) 1. To beget. 2. To produce; to cause (Tim.). To GENDER. v. n. To copulate; to breed. GENDRE (Louis le), a French historian, who was descended from an obscure family at Rouen, was born in 1659, and died in 1733. His principal works are, a History of France, in 3 vols. folio; the Life of Harley; an Essay on the Reign of Louis the Great; and a Life of Cardinal d'Amboise.

GENDRE (Gelbert Charles le), marquis of St. Aubin, a French writer of considerable merit, was counsellor of the parliament of Paris, and master of requests. He died in 1746, at the age of fifty-nine. His principal work is, a Treatise on Opinion, 12mo.

GENEALOGICAL. a. (genealogy-) Pertaining to descents or families.

GENEALOGIST. s. (yiviahoyíw; genealogist, French.) He who traces descents.

GENEALOGY. s. s. (yya and y.) History of the succession of families (Burnet). GENERA, in BOTANY and ZOOLOGY. See those articles.

GENERA, in music, the different scales by which the Greeks regulated their division of the tetrachord: these, as agreed by Aristoxenus, Bacchius, Euclid, Boetius, and other ancient writers, were principally three; the ENHARMONIC, CHROMATIC, and DIATONIC. (See those words.) Aristides Quintilian, however, mentions many other genera, and enumerates six as very ancient, viz. the Lydian, Dorian, Phrygian, Ionian, Mixolydian, and Syntonolydian. These six genera, which we must not confound with the tones or modes of the same names, differed no less in their degrees than in their compass. The one did not extend to the octave, while others reached, and some exceeded it. Independent of the various subdivisions of the three principal genera, there was a common genus, consisting only of the stable sounds of the genera; as also a mixed genus, 'partaking of two, or of all the three genera.

It is worthy of notice, that in this collection or combination of genera, which was rarely used, not more than four chords or strings were employed, which were tightened or relaxed during performance: a practice of great apparent difficulty, and of which we can have no true idea. Indeed, the whole musical system of the ancients being only conveyed to us by speculative authors, and not by any continuance of its practice, we are necessarily left in great uncertainty respecting its execution, nor will the varying accounts of the different writers on the subject afford us a permanent resting place for our opinions concerning the niceties of its theory. (Busby's Dict. Mus.). GENERABLE. a. (from genero, Latin.) That may be produced or begotten.

GENERAL. u. (general, Fr.) 1. Comprehending many species or individuals; not special; not particular (Broome). 2. Lax in signification; not restrained to any special or particular import (Watts). 3. Not restrained by narrow or distinctive limitations (Locke). 4. Relating to a whole class or body of men, or a whole kind of any being (Whitgift). 5. Public; comprising the whole (Milton). 6. Not directed to any single object (Sprat). 7. Extensive, though not universal. 8. Common; usual (Shakspeare).

GENERAL. S. 1. The whole; the totality (Norris). 2. The public; the interest of the whole. 3. The vulgar (Shakspeare).

GENERAL, in a military sense, is an officer in chief, to whom the prince or senate of a country have judged proper to intrust the command of their troops. He holds this important trust under various titles: as captain-general in England and Spain; feldt-mareschal in Germany, or mareschal in France.

In the British service the king is, constitutionally, and in his own proper right, captaingeneral. He has ten aide-de-camps; every one of whom enjoys the brevet rank of full colonel in the army. Next to his majesty is the commander in chief, whom he sometimes honours with the title of captain-general.

The natural qualities of a general are a martial genius, a solid judgment, a healthy robust constitution, intrepidity and presence of mind on critical occasions, indefatigability in business, goodness of heart, liberality, a reasonable age; if too young, he may want experience and prudence; if too old, he may not have vivacity enough. His conduct must be uniform, his temper affable, but inflexible in maintaining the police and discipline of an army.

The acquired qualities of a general should be secrecy, justice, sobriety, temperance, knowledge of the art of war from theory and practice, the art of commanding and speaking with precision and exactness, great attention to preserve the lives and supply the wants of the soldiers; and a constant study of the characters of the officers of his army, that he may employ them according to their talents. His conduct appears in establishing his magazines in the most convenient places; in examining the

country, that he may not engage his troops too far, while he is ignorant of the means of bringing them off; in subsisting them, and in knowing how to take the most advantageous posts, either for fighting, retreating, or shunning a battle. His experience inspires his army with confidence, and an assurance of victory; and his quality, by creating respect, augments his authority. By his liberality he gets intelligence of the strength and designs of the enemy, and by this means is enabled to take the most successful measures. He ought to be fond of. glory, to have an aversion to Hattery, to render himself beloved, and to keep a strict discipline and regular subordination.

The office of a general is to regulate the march and encampment of the army; in the day of battle to chuse out the most advantageous ground; to make the disposition of the army; to post the artillery, and where there is occasion, to send his orders by his aide-decamps. At a siege he is to cause the place to be invested, to regulate the approaches and attacks, to visit the works, and to send out detachinents to secure the convoy and foraging parties.

General of Horse, and General of Foot, are posts next under the general of the army, and these have upon all occasions an absolute authority over all the horse and foot in the army.

General of the Artillery, or Master General of the Ordnance. See ORDNANCE.

GENERAL, is also used for a particular march, or beat of drum, being the first which gives notice, commonly in the morning early, for the infantry to be in readiness to march.

GENERAL, is also used for the chief of an order of monks; or of all the houses and congregations, established under the same rule. Thus we say, the general of the Franciscans, Cistercians, &c.

GENERALISSIMO, a supreme and absolute commander in the field. This word is generally used in most foreign languages. It was first invented by the absolute authority of cardinal Richelieu, when he went to command the French army in Italy.

GENERALITY. s. (generalité, French.) 1. The state of being general (Hooker). 2. The main body; the bulk (Tillotson).

4.

GENERALLY. ad. (from general.) 1. In general; without specification or exact limitation (Bacon). 2. Extensively, though not universally. 3. Commonly; frequently. In the main; without minute detail (Swift). GENERALNESS. s. (from general.) Wide extent, though short of universality; frequency; commonness (Sidney).

GENERALTY. s. (from general.) The whole; the totality (Hale).

GENERANT. s. (generans, Latin.) The begetting or productive power (Glanville).

To GENERATE. v. a. (genero, Latin.) 1. To beget; to propagate (Bacon). 2. To produce to life; to procreate (Milton). 3. To cause; to produce (Arbuthnot). GENERATION. s. (generation, French.) 1. The act of begetting or producing (Bacon).