dies naturally hard, remarkably heavy, and fusible in fire. Of these some are perfectly metallic, as being malleable when pure; such are gold, lead, silver, copper, iron and tin: others are imperfectly metallic, as not being malleable even in their purest state; such are antimony, bismuth, cobalt, zinc, &c. Of all these substances, the reader will find a particular description under their respective heads. See also GEOLOGY, and MINERALOGY.

Extraneous fossils are bodies of the vegetable or animal kingdoms accidentally buried in the earth. Of the vegetable kingdom there are principally three kinds, trees or parts of them, herbaceous plants, and corals; and of the animal kingdom there are four kinds, seashells, the teeth or bony palates and bones of fishes, complete fishes, and the bones of land animals. (See BONES, TREES, WOOD, PLANT, SHELL, &c.) These adventitious or extraneous fossils, thus found buried in great abundance in divers parts of the earth, have employed the curiosity of several of our latest naturalists, who have each a different system to account for the surprising appear ances of petrified sea-fishes, in places far remote from the sea, and on the tops of mountains; shells in the middle of quarries of stone; and of elephants' teeth, and bones of various animals, peculiar to the southern climates, and plants only growing in the East, found fossil in our northern and western parts. On this subject we would beg leave to refer the reader to Parkinson's Organic Remains of a former World.

FOSSIL-PITCH. See PETROLEUM. FOSSOMBRONE, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Urbino, with a bishop's see. Lat. 43. 40 N. Lon. 12. 48 E.

FOSTER (Samuel), an English mathematician, born in Northamptonshire, and educated at Cambridge, where he took his degrees in arts. In 1636 he was chosen professor of astronomy; in Gresham college, which, however, he resigned at the close of the same year, but in 1641 he was re-elected. He became one of the first members of that society, which afterwards was incorporated by royal charter, for encouraging experimental philosophy, and died in 1652. He wrote several mathematical treatises; the chief of which are, The Art of Dialling; Description of sundry Instruments, invented or improved by him; and Miscellanies. There were two other mathematicians of his name in the same century, viz. William Foster, who was a pupil of Oughtred, and afterwards a teacher in London; and Mark Foster, the author of a treatise on Trigonometry. (Watkins).

FOSTER (James), an English divine, born in 1697 at Exeter, and educated at the freeschool of that city, from whence he was removed to an academy to perfect his studies. He commenced preacher in 1718, but when the disputes broke out in Exeter respecting the doctrine of the Trinity, he quitted that place and went to Melborne in Somersetshire. Afterwards he resided for some time at Trowbridge

in Wiltshire, and in 1724 he was chosen to succeed Dr. Gale, at Barbican, having altered his sentiments respecting infant baptism, and been immersed in consequence of reading that writer's treatise on the subject. In 1744 he was chosen pastor of the church of Pinner's hall, and in 1748 the university of Maréschall college, Aberdeen, conferred on him the degree of D.D. He died in 1753, leaving a high character behind him for integrity and learning. His writings are; 1. A Defence of the Christian Revelation against Mr. Tindal. 2. Tracts on Heresy against Dr. Stebbing. 3. Several excellent Sermons, in 4 vols. 8vo. 4. Discourses on natural Religion and social Virtue, 2 vols. 4to. (Watkins).

To FO'STER. v. a. (Forτnian, Saxon.) 1. To nurse; to feed; to support (Cleaveland). 2. To pamper (Sidney). 3. To cherish; to forward (Thomson).

FOSTERAGE. s. (from foster.) The charge of nursing; alterage (Raleigh), FÖSTERBROTHER.s. (Forter broder, Saxon.)One bred at the same pap.

FOSTERCHILD. s. (Forzen cild, Sax.) A child nursed by a woman not the mother, or bred by a man not the father (Davies).

FOSTERDA'M. s. (foster and dam). A nurse; one that performs the office of a mother (Dryden).

FOSTEREA'RTH. s. (foster and earth.) Earth by which the plant is nourished, though it did not grow at first in it (Philips).

FOSTERER. s. (from foster.) A nurse; one who gives food in the place of a parent (Davies).

FOSTERFATHER. s. (Foster fader, Saxon.) One who gives food in the place of the father.

FOSTERLEAN, anciently signified nuptial gifts; much the same with what we now call jointure.

FOSTERMOTHER. s. (foster and mother.) A nurse.

FOSTERSO'N. s. (foster and son.) One fed and educated, though not the son by nature, FOTHERGILL (John), an eminent English physician, born in 1712 at Carr End, in Yorkshire, of reputable parents, who were by profession quakers. About 1728 he was placed apprentice to an apothecary at Bradford, and in 1736 he removed to London, where he studied two years in St. Thomas's hospital. From thence he went to Edinburgh, and took his doctor's degree. He afterwards went to Leyden, and travelled through some parts of France and Germany. About 1740 he commenced practice in London with great success, which continued to the very last. He was also admitted fellow of the college of physicians at Edinburgh, and a member of the royal and antiquarian societies of London. He greatly cultivated natural history and botany, and was a liberal patron of ingenious men. He was at the sole expence of printing Purver's translation of the scriptures into English, and an edition of bishop Percy's Key to the New Testament for a seminary of quakers in Yorkshire. He died in

1780, and was buried in the quaker's burying ground at Winchmore-hill. His shells and pieces of natural history were sold, by his own appointment, to the late Dr. Hunter, at 5001. under the valuation. His library was sold by auction. His Tracts were collected into one velume, by Dr. Elliott.

FOTHERGILLIA. In botany, a genus of the class polyandria, order monogynia. Calyx truncate, very entire; corolless; germ cloven; capsule two-celled; seeds solitary, bony. One species: a Caroline tree, resembling the alder; with alternate, wedge-formed leaves, serrate at top, hoary underneath, flowers in a very close terminal spike..

FOTHERING, a peculiar method of endeavouring to stop a leak in the bottom of a ship while she is afloat, either under sail or at anchor. It is usually performed in the following manner: A basket is filled with ashes, cinders, and chopped rope-yarns, and loosely covered with a piece of canvas; to this is fastened a long pole, by which it is plunged repeatedly in the water, as close as possible to the place where the leak is conjectured to lie. The oakum or chopped rope-yarns being thus gradually shaken through the twigs, or over the top of the basket, are frequently sucked into the hole along with the water, so that the leak becomes immediately choaked; and the ready entrance of the water is thereby prevented. FOTHERINGAY, a town of Northamptonshire, nine miles S. of Stamford, near the river Nen. It is chiefly noted for the ruins of the castle, in which Mary queen of Scotland was beheaded.

FOU-TCHEOU-FOU, a city of China, in the province of Fo-kein. It carries on a considerable trade; but is chiefly remarkable for the magnificence of its principal bridge, which has amore than 100 arches, constructed of white stone, and ornamented with a double balustrade throughout. This city is the residence of a viceroy, and has under its jurisdiction nine cities of the third class.

FOUCHIER (Bertram de), a Dutch paint er, born at Bergen-op-Zoom in 1609, and a disciple of Vandyck. He afterwards travelled to Rome, where he studied the manner of Tintorretto. On his return to his own country he adopted the style of Brouwer, and painted portraits and conversations with great repute. He died in 1674.

FOVEOLATE, honey-combed; covered superficially with hollows nearly cubical.

FOUGA'DE. s. (French.) In the art of war, a sort of little mine in the manner of a well, dug under some work of fortification. FOUGHT. The preterit and participle of

fight.

FOUGHTEN. The passive participle of

fight.

FOVILLA, the fine, imperceptible substance discharged by the pollen of the an

thers.

FOUL. a. (Ful, Saxon.) 1. Not clean; filthy; dirty; miry (Tillotson). 2. Impure; polluted; full of filth (Tillotson). 3. Wicked;

detestable; abominable (Dryden). 4. Not lawful (Shakspeare). 5. Hateful; ugly; loathsome (Bacon). 6. Disgraceful; shameful (Milton). 7. Coarse; gross (Felton). 8. Full. of gross humours; wanting purgation or mundification (Shakspeare) 9. Not bright; not serene (Dryden). 10. With rough force; with unseasonable violence (Clarendon). 11. (Among seamen.) Entangled: as, a rope is foul of the anchor.

To FOUL. v. a. (Fulan, Saxon.) To daub; to bemire; to make filthy; to dirty (Evelyn).

FOULA, or FOUL ISLAND, one of the Shetland isles, lying between six and seven leagues west from the main land. It is about three miles long, narrow, and full of rough, steep, and bare rocks; one of which is so large, and runs up to such an height, that it may be clearly seen from Orkney. This, therefore, may be reckoned with the greatest probability

to be the Thule of Tacitus.

FOULAHS or FOOLAHS, a people in Africa, inhabiting a country on the confines of the great desert (see SAHARA) along the parallel of nine degrees north. They partake much of the negro form and complexion; but they have neither the jetty colour, thick lips, nor crisped hair of the negroes. They have also a language distinct from the Mandinga, which is the prevailing one in this quarter. The Foulahs occupy, at least as sovereigns, several provinces or kingdoms, interspersed throughout the tract comprehended between the mountainous border of the country Sierra Leona on the West, and that of Tombuctoo on the east; as also a large tract on the lower part of the Senegal river; and these provinces are insulated from each other in a very remarkable manner. Their religion is Mahometanism; but with a great mixture of Paganism, and with less intolerance than is practised by the Moors.

The principal of the Foulah states is that within Sierra Leona; and of which Teemboo is the capital. The next in order appears to be that bordering on the south of the Senegal river, and on the Jaloffs; this is properly named Siratik. Others of less note are Bondou, with Foota-Torra adjacent to it, lying between the rivers Gambia and Falemé; Foola-doo and Brooko along the upper part of the Senegal river; Wassela beyond the upper part of the Niger; and Massina lower down on the same river, and joining to Tornbuctoo on the

west.

The kingdom of the Foulahs, situated between the upper part of the Gambia river and the coast of Sierra Leona, and along the Rio Grande, is governed by a Mahometan sovereign; but the bulk of the people appear to be Pagans. From the circumstances of their long hair, their lips, and comparatively light colour, Major Rennel is decidedly of opinion, that the Foulahs are the Leucaethiops of Ptolemy and Pliny.

FOULFA'CED. a. (foul and faced.) Having an ugly or hateful visage (Shakspeare).

FOULI, or PHOLEY, a country of Africa,

situate on the sides of the river Senegal, and extending about 500 miles from E. to W.: the boundaries from N. to S. are unknown. It is populous and fertile. The inhabitants are, in general, of a tawny complexion, though many of them are entirely black. They lead a wandering life, and roam about the country with large droves of cows, sheep, goats, and horses. The king of this country is called the Siratick; and though he seldom appears with the badges of majesty, he has great authority, and is as much respected as any one on the coast. Elephants are extremely numerous in this country: the natives are very dextrous in catching them.

FO ULLY. ad. (from foul.) 1. Filthily; nastily; odiously (Hayward). 2. Not lawfully; not fairly (Shakspeare).

FOULMOUTHED. a. (foul and mouth.) Scurrilous; habituated to the use of opprobrious terms and epithets (Addison).

FOU'LNESS. s. (from foul.) 1. The quality of being foul; filthiness; nastiness (Wilkins). 2. Pollution; impurity (Bacon). 3. Hatefulness; atrociousness (Ben Jonson). 4. Ugliness; deformity (Dryden). 5. Dishonesty; want of candour (Hammond).

FOULNESS, an island separated by a narrow channel from the S. E. part of the county of Essex, six miles E. of Rochford.

FOULON (William), a Dutch Latin poet, born at the Hague, where he kept a school. He afterwards became a burgomaster at Horden in Friezeland, where he died in 1558, aged 75. He wrote three Latin comedies; 1. Martyrium Johannis Pistorii; 2. Hypocrysis, 1554; 3. Acolastus, de filio prodigo.

FOULSHAM, a town in Norfolk, with a market on Tuesdays. Lat. 52. 51 N. Lon. 1. 7E

FOUMART, a species of MUSTELA. FOUND. The pret. and part. passive of find.

To FOUND. v. a. ( fundare, Latin; fonder, French.) 1. To lay the basis of any building (Psalms). 2. To build; to raise (Davies). 3. To establish; to erect (Milton). 4. To give birth or original to: as, he founded an art. 5. To raise upon, as on a principle or ground (Decay of Piety). 6. To fix firm (Shakspeare).

To FOUND. v. a. (fundere, Lat. fondre, French.) To form by melting and pouring into moulds; to cast (Milton).

FOUNDATION. s. (fondation, French.) 1. The basis or lower parts of an edifice. 2. The act of fixing the basis (Tickel). 3. The principles or grounds on which any notion is raised (Tillotson). 4. Original; rise (Hooker). 5. A revenue settled and established for any purpose, particularly charity (Swift). 6. Establishment; settlement.

FOUNDATION, that part of a building which is under-ground: or, that mass of stone, &c. which supports a building; or upon which the walls of the superstructure are raised: or, it is the coffer or bed, dug below the level of the ground, to raise a building upon.

The foundations of buildings are either natural or artificial. Natural, as when we build on a rock, or a very solid earth; in which case we need not seek for any farther strengthening. Artificial, where the ground is sandy, or marshy, or has lately been dug. In the former case, the architect must adjust the depth of the foundation by the height, weight, &c. of the building a sixth part of the whole height is looked on as a medium; and as to thickness, double that of the width of the wall is a good rule. Architects ought to use the utmost diligence in regard to foundations, since of all errors which may happen in building, an error in this point is most pernicious. See ARCHITECTURE, part 3, sect. 2.

As to the rules necessary to be observed in constructing the ground-work, they are these: 1. That the bottom of the trench be made exactly level. 2. That the lowest ledge or row be all of stone, laid close together. 3. That the breadth of the ground-work be at least double that of the wall that is to be raised on it. However, art ought always to give way to discretion, for the breadth may be regulated according to the goodness of the ground, and the weight of the intended edifice. 4. That the foundation be made to diminish as it rises, only care must be taken that it do so equally on both sides. 5. That persons ought never to build upon the ruins of an old foundation, unless well assured of its depth and goodness.

FOUNDATIONS of the piers of bridges, are laid after different manners, according to the nature of the ground, depth and velocity of the water, &c. The conveniences used are BATTERDAUX, CAISSONS, &c.

Alberti, who is reckoned among the first who wrote on bridges, gives us the following directions for laying the foundation of a pier. "First raise an inclosure to keep off the water, by driving a double row of stakes very close and thick set, with their heads above the top of the water like a trench. Then put hurdles within this double row of stakes. Close that side of the row which is next to the intended pier, fill up the hollow between the two rows with rushes and mud, ramming them together so hard that no water can possibly get through. Then whatever you find within this inclosure, water, mud, sand, or whatever else is an hindrance to you, throw out, and dig till you come at a solid foundation. or, if you find it necessary, make a foundation of wooden piles burnt at the ends, and driven in as close together as possible. And here I have observed, that the best architects used to make a continued foundation of the whole length of the bridge, and not merely under each pier; and this they did, not by shutting out the whole river at once, by one single inclosure, but by first excluding one part, then another, and so joining the whole together by degrees: for it would be impossible to withstand and repel the whole force of the water at once. We must therefore, while we are at work in one part, leave another part open for a passage for the stream. You may leave these passages either in the

channel itself, or, if you think it more convenient, you may frame wooden dams or hanging channels, by which the superfluous water may run off: but if you find the expence of a continued foundation for the whole bridge too great, you may only make a separate foundation for every particular pier, in the form of a ship, with one angle in the stern and another in the head, lying directly even with the current of the water, that the force of the water may be broken by the angles. We are to remember that the water is much more dangerous to the stern than to the head of the pier." Palladio, who is the next writer, says, To lay the foundations of pilasters, if the bed of the river be stone or gravel-stone, you have the foundation without any trouble; but in case the bottom be quicksand or gravel, you must dig therein, till you come to solid or firm ground; or, if that should be found too laborious or impracticable, you must dig moderately deep in the sand or gravel, and then you must thrust in oaken piles, which will reach the solid or firm ground, with the iron by which their points are to be armed. A part only of the bed of the river must be inclosed from the water, and then we are to build there; that the other part being left open, the water may have its free current; and so go on from part to part."

Many other early architects give rules to nearly the same purpose: but instead of inserting them, we shall describe the practice of one or two of the moderns. In the year 1753, the foundation of Essex-bridge in Dubfin was laid in a very deep and rapid stream by Mr. Semple, who adopted the following method. Round the place where the intended pier was to rest, the workmen drove, at about 30 inches distance from each other both ways, Iwo rows of strong piles, which were left at the height of low-water-mark. These piles were lined with planks, within which they rammed a quantity of clay, and thus formed the external wall of the coffer-dam. Within this wall, and at about the same distances, they drove in a row of piles dovetailed at their edges, so as to receive each other, and which formed the extremities of the plan of the piers, at the level of the bed of the river. After having dug to a fine stratum of sand about four feet lower, within these there were a great number of other piles of oak driven as deep as they possibly could be made to penetrate. They next filled up the voids or intervals of these piles; and in order to produce a solid and petrified foundation, they employed mortar of a peculiar quality, made up of roach lime and sharp gravel; and with this they began to lay the first course, ramming in large flat stones upon it to about a foot thick. On this first course they laid a plentiful coat of dry lime and gravel of the same quality, on which they again laid stones, and then proceeded to lay mortar as at first, and continued to do so alternately till they came to a perfect level with the piles. Fastened down to the end of these piles were laid three beams stretching the whole length VOL. V.

of the pier from sterling to sterling, the intervals being filled up with masonry. On this platform, which was four feet six inches under low-water-mark, they began to lay the first course of stones, for the pier, cramped together, and jointed with tarras as usual, and went forward till they came to a level with the water at ebb tide.

About the year 1765, the foundation of a stone bridge across the river Tees, near Stockton, was laid by Mr. Shout, and we shall here mention those few particulars in which his method differed from the preceding. The workmen began with first making very strong coffers of solid fir timber about ten feet square, which they piled, jointed, and secured one upon another, till they had gained a sufficient height to exclude the water at its highest tide. The joints of these timbers they caulked in the same manner as ships are; and launching then without any bottoms, they fixed them down to their respective stations in the river. On the outside and inside they drove a number of piles, which they boarded and rammed with clay, to prevent the water from oozing in at the bottom of the coffers. This indeed was their greatest difficulty, for, owing to quicksands, and other loose strata through which the water sprang in, the labour of digging to the proper kind of foundation was immense. The chain pumps played incessantly, and by a resolute perseverance, the work, which at some periods seemed to bid defiance to human industry and skill, was at length brought above low-water-mark, and the completion of the whole occupied a space of time nearly equal to Westminster bridge. The bridge is neat and plain, and continues to the present time a proof of the solidity of its foundation.

FO’UNDER. s. (from found.) 1. A builder; one who raises an edifice (Dryden). 2. One who establishes a revenue for any purpose (Bentley). 3. One from whom any thing has its original or beginning (Roscommon). 4. A caster; one who forms figures by casting melted matter into moulds (Grew),

To Fo'UNDER. v. a. (fondre, French.) To cause such a soreness and tenderness in a horse's foot, that he is unable to set it to the ground (Dorset).

To FOUNDER. v. n. (from fond, French.) 1. To sink to the bottom (Raleigh). 2. To fail; to miscarry (Shakspeare).

FOUNDER. In the manage, a disease of horses, by which they grow gradually contracted in their hoofs, and narrowed at their heels, putting their feet before each other with as much fear and caution as if they were moving upon a sheet of red-hot iron. This disease is often denominated foot-founder; it appears to be generally connected with what is called chest-founder, and is perhaps only a part of one common malady: the tenderness and rigidity of the forefoot extending through the whole course of the tendons and muscles that surround the leg and chest. The cause is not exactly known: it probably proceeds from excessive exercise frequently repeated on hard

F

roads, and especially in connection with the too frequent practice of cooling the horse's burning feet suddenly by immersion in cold water. The inflammatory symptoms should first be subdued, and the stiffness and debility attempted to be removed by friction and oleaginous stimulants.

FOUNDERY. s. A place where figures are formed of melted metal; a casting-house.

FOUNDERY, or FOUNDRY, signifies also the art of casting all sorts of metals into different forms. This art is exceedingly beneficial, as all metals must be subjected to it before they become fit for any useful purpose; but notwithstanding its application is so widely extended, its principles are simple, and we propose to explain them by a few examples, from which the reader may, by analogy, form an idea of the manner in which any other article is moulded and cast.

The great part of the founder's art consists in forming the moulds to receive the metal while in a state of fusion; the materials of these moulds are varied as the metal they are intended for requires. Sand, and loam or clay, are the materials most generally used for casting, as they are applicable to any metal and any subject; metal moulds are sometimes used, where a great number of the same article is to be cast, so that the duration of the moulds will compensate for the labour of making them. Artists who cast the valuable metals use a variety of compositions for making their moulds; but they are all employed in the same manner as the iron and brass founders employ sand and loam.

The sand used by the founders is of a loamy na ture, containing a portion of clay sufficient to make it cling as they term it; that is, when the sand, rather damp, is squeezed up in the hand, it shall have sufficient adhesion to preserve any figure given to it. The founders near London procure their sand from the neighbourhood of Woolwich; but it is by no means a scarce article, almost every part of the country affording it, or the materials, viz. sand and loam; which may be mixed in proper proportions to give the requisite tenacity, at the same time that it is sufficiently dry to avoid the danger of an explosion, when the hot metal is poured in; an accident which some times happens when the sand contains too much water, from its sudden expansion when heated by the metal.

For moulding in sand, the founder must be provided with a number of frames, called boxes or flasks; these are made of wood or iron, and in shape corresponding to the article to be moulded in them. For an example we have chosen to explain the manner of moulding a pipe for the conveyance of water, having a flaunch or projecting ring at each end to connect it by, means of screws with other similar pipes. To mould this the founder must be furnished with a pattern, that is a wooden pipe the same size and figure with that to be cast, except that instead of being bored out it has two pins aa, fig. 4. plate 74, projecting from its ends, which are of the same diameter as the bore of the pipe is intended to bc. Their use will be explained shortly. This pattern is cut in half at line bb, and steady pins are put in to hold them together. A pair of flasks proper to contain sand for moulding. These are shewn in fig. 1, 2, and 3, of the plate. AA BB are two cast-iron frames open at bottom, and nearly the same shape as the pipe; when put together, these two will

form a box, but wanting a top and bottom. The founder fil's one of these flasks, BB, with sand, and rams it down moderately hard with the rammer K, fig. 6. he then forms a cavity with the trowel Z in the sand, sufficiently large to receive one of the halves of the pattern, fig. 4, this he places in the cavity, and rams the sand down close round its edges, and makes its surface level with the trowel Y. When the other half is placed upon the pattern, it is brought to the state represented by fig. 2. Dry sand which has been burnt is now strewed over the pattern and the sand in the lower flask BB, the upper flask is placed upon it, their joining being determined by four steady pins at dd, fig. 1, entering corresponding holes in the lower flask, fig. 2. The upper flask is now filled with sand through the opening in the top of it, and. rammed in hard with L, fig. 6. Two wooden pins are thrust through the sand to reach the pattern, and being drawn out make two holes to pour the metal into the mould. The upper flask is now lifted up from the other with the sand in it, and as it parts from the other exactly at the place where the burnt sand was strewed, it contains an. exact impression of one half of the pattern: and by lifting the pattern out of the sand in the lower flask, a print of the other half will be formed; so. that when the two flasks are returned together, a cavity will be left between them the size and shape of the pattern; and the metal may be poured in through the holes before mentioned.

This method would be proper for moulding a solid article the shape of the pipe: but to form the bore or passage through it, a core must be inserted. This is a cylinder of dried clay, the size of the intended passage, and the length of the extreme ends of the pins aa; its size is therefore denoted by the dotted lines in fig. 4. The end of the core is inserted into the impressions of the pins aa, which it exactly fits, as is shewn in fig. 1. By this means, when the two flasks are put together, a cavity is left all round the core, as is shewn by the dark circle in fig. 5; which is a cross section of the mould put together. The core is made upon an iron bar, which is laid in a frame where it can be turned round by a handle. Hay bands are then wound round it till it becomes nearly the required size. Wet clay is next spread upon it, and smoothed at the same time that it is turned round, till it is made a true and straight cylinder; it is next dried in a stove, by making a fire beneath it. Afterwards another coat of very fine loam is spread upon it, to close up the cracks which will most probably be found in the first coat by theshrinkage of the loam in drying: the last covering brings the cylinder to the true diameter, and when dry it is finished. Now it is evident that if the pins aa are in the proper places, and of the true size, the thickness of the metal will be the same all round the pipe.

The moulder must take care, in every case of sand casting, to make a small hole away from all the highest parts of the pattern, to allow a retreat for the air, when the metal is poured in ; otherwise the rarefaction of the air would burst the mould in the pipe; for example, these vents must be made from the highest part of each flaunch by a wire pushed through the sand; two holes should be made for the entrance of the metal, and when the mould is cast, the metal must be poured in from a ladle at one hole; and when it is seen to rise up in the other, the stream is stopped.

The melting of the metal is performed in various