men to make general examinations of train-hands for the elucidation and explanation of some of the unaccountable accidents that had occurred upon the railroads. The discoveries were so interesting that these examinations soon extended throughout the schools to find out the ratio of defect, as well as grades of defect, among the children. Naturally, from these examinations, some general laws and classification of this peculiar visual condition have been deduced. Prof. Holmgren, of Upsala, Sweden, was the first to go thoroughly into the examination and physiological study of color-blindness. He accepts the YoungHelmholtz theory of Color-perception (see EYE in the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA), That nerve-fibres in the retina are excited by waves of light, and the development of color arises from the action of longer or shorter waves upon certain fibres, producing the sensation of a color according to the length of the waves. Long waves excite fibres sensitive to red; medium, those sensitive to green, and short, those sensitive to violet." He says, "That color-blindness in each case is a genuine blindness to one of the primary colors, and that therefore three classes of blindness are to be distin guished: Red-blindness, Green-blindness, and Violet (blue) blindness. ap Red-blindness is due to the absence or paralysis of the nerve fibres or organs perceiving red, leaving but the two fundamental colors, green and violet. According to Helmholtz: "Spectral red feebly excites the perceptive organs of green and less so those of violet, and consequently to a red-blind person red pears a saturate green of feeble intensity into which a sensible portion of the other colors enter. Feebly luminous red does not sufficiently excite the perceptive organs of green in the red-blind, and it seems then black. Spectral yellow seems to them green and intensely luminous, and thus causing them to call all green tints yellow.' Holmgren shows that it is clear that a red and green light excite one and the same element in the red-blind, and an object of these colors must appear of the same color. Green-blindness arises from the absence or paralysis of the perceptive elements of green; leaving but two fundamental colors, red and violet. The spectrum of a green blind is: the red appears as an extremely saturated red, but somewhat less intense than the normal red which is more yellowish, as green forms part of it. Blue is violet, and violet is less intense than normal. The tints most luminous to the green-blind are orange and indigo blue, while red and green are the same color. Violet-blindness is due to the absence or paralysis of the elements perceiving violet, leaving the two fundamental colors red and green. To such the red is purer than normal; yellow is as a combination of the primitive colors that form white. Green is strongly luminous, but whiter; blue is a green of moderate luminosity, and violet is a feeble green. To the violetblind red and green are not confused. Violet-blindness is very rare, while red and green are comparatively common. The greatest number found is that of red-blind. Holmgren has divided this chromatic defect into three grades of intensity: 1. Total color-blindness (Achromatopsia). A condition in which there is entire absence of the perception of colors. Only black and white and the different degrees of intensity of light can be perceived. Everything looks in black and white like a photo graph. This grade is very rarely found congenital, but mostly follows some disease of the brain or optic nerve. 2. Complete color-blindness (Partial Achromatopsia). In which there fails the perception of one of the fundamental colors, red, green, or violet; in this group is classed red-blind, green-blind, violet-blind; and generally the congenital cases can be placed here. One born color-blind will always remain so, no matter how assiduously he attempts to educate his eye. He will not be able to see the colors in the normal way nor with the normal promptness. He does not really see the color, although he may make some kind of a distinguishment by the intensity or luminosity, and this power of distinguishing may sometimes be improved by practice. 3. Incomplete color-blindness (Dyschromatopsia); This is more frequent-this is complete "Daltonism, and consists in a reduced sensitiveness in recognizing some one or more of the fundamental colors, and especially the shades of that color, even when the primitive color may be distinguished. The perception is not so sharp and clear in certain shades as in others. This grade of defect can be very greatly remedied by education. Magnus, of Breslau, has added a fourth grade of color defect, which he calls "Dullness or sluggishness of color distinction" (Farbenträgheit). This defect is characterized by the person first sorting out colors, by laying many shades of different colors together, just as he would do if color-blind; but, on examining them again to see if correct, the mistake is noticed and they are re-sorted correctly. In such cases the color perception, though slow, is otherwise normal. Of the examinations now made throughout the world, in the schools and in the railroads, about 3.5 per cent. of males are born color-blind, while in females only about 1 per cent. has been found. To the red and green-blind, black, white, yellow, and blue are generally clear and distinct, and seen as others see them. The red-blind person sees lower-tone red shades up to crimson, in yellowish tints; and then a gray or colorless hue presents itself in the brighter or higher tones of crimson. When the red shade runs into a lake, a bluish tint comes on, and increases in value as the red runs into violet. With the greenblind, the green when pure is invisible, and appears gray; but when it is mixed with yellow or blue (as most greens are), the patient sees those elements only. A violet-blind person will lose the yellow in reds and the blue in greens, according to the shade of the violet, whether on the yellow or bluish order, so that a reddish-violet will look clear, sharp red, and a bluishgreen will be a clear, distinct green. But if the violet is feeble in tone it becomes black. For the more thorough study of color-perception and color-blindness, consult especially Helmholtz Physiologische Optik (1867), Kaiser, Compendium des Physiologische Optik (1872), Holmgren, De la Cécitè des Couleurs, etc. (1877), Translation by the Smithsonian Institute (1878), Jeffries, Color-blindness, Its Danger and its Detection (1879), Cohn, Studien über Farbenblindheit (1879), etc. (P. D. K.) COLTON, CALVIN (1789-1857), an American minister and author, was born at Longmeadow, Mass., in 1789. He graduated at Yale College in 1812, studied theology at Andover, and was ordained in 1815 as a Presbyterian minister at Batavia, N. Y. On account of the failure of his voice he gave up preaching in 1826, and became a contributor to the press. In 1831, tatene about 20 per wore the river, which is formed here w the endsence of the Broad and Saluda Rivers, and 334 feet above the sea. The Congaree River is o o tifus nere about 1800 feet wide, and falls 36 feet within the 4 he jeagle and town limits. It is navigable from the lower end of the De Returning New city for steamboats, but this waterway is neglected sar Zeroes in Gront Brit A canal, six miles long, also formerly united the navi• A che a work sien Protest gation of the Congaree and the Saluda, and a shorter ziez te ka vuae as prominent canal extended from the Congaree to the Brad the wet work. Thoughts on the These canals might be utilized so s tri c Sute of the Country, and Reasons for Pre with power Four railways enter the are the chap fang kapangan. porished in 1836, was occasioned lotte, Columbia, and Augusa the strange of church relation. After 1888, for ser- the Greerville and Columb ara, years, peditical subjecta chiefly occupied his atten- Calumisa, and Aur tom and his writings were considered a valuable sić to sover meta the Whig party Ho opposed the sbobriar af skireng which then began to be moved by the 1 host natty. GERA BR and other rivers. There is also an immense export of salted salmon in barrels. guano. In the province 75,000,000 feet of lumber are sawn each year, but the business is yet in its infancy. Some of the largest saw and planing-mills in the world are to be found here. The red fir is an admirable and abundant ship-timber. The tideland spruce is also highly valued. There are several tanneries and shoe-factories in British Columbia. The native hides are remarkably heavy. Vancouver Island affords a great amount of nemlock bark for tanning. Bear soap and sal soda are also articles of colonial manufacture. British Columbian fur-seal hunting employs four steam-schooners, and a considerable number of minor vessels, including large Indian canoes. The Hudson's Bay Company still carries on business here, but has no exclusive privileges. he the new Canadian Territories of Alberta and Athabusca, divided from it, except towards the N., by the eastern ridge and water-shed of the Rocky Mountains ; The colonial fisheries are worth several million dollars north of it are parts of the old Canadian North-west- a year. The oolichan, or eulacon (one of the species ern Territory, the parallel of 60° N. lat. being the N. called candle-fish), is both canned and pickled for limit of the province. The western line is the ocean- market. From this fish 10,000 gallons of oil are made front, except towards the N., where Alaska occupies a annually on Nass River alone. The oil is reported narrow strip of territory for some 350 miles. Its grand to sell on the spot for $1 a gallon. A large herring shore-line of 560 miles is greatly multiplied by minor fishery has been started. Herring-oil is largely convolutions; and it is officially stated to extend. to shipped, and the scrap is sold in England as fish7181 statute miles, of which 1723 belong to Vancouver's Island, 684 to Queen Charlotte's Islands, 334 to Halibut, sturgeon, and many other fish are exceedGraham Island, and 250 to Moresby Island. There ingly abundant. One establishment on Skidegate Inare off the coast 52 islands noteworthy for their ex- let makes large quantities of oil from the black shark. tent. The area of the province is given as 355,999 Crabs, shrimps, prawns, and clams are somewhat square miles; that of Vancouver is about 12,000 largely caught. square miles. Graham Island has some 1500 miles of area, and Moresby about 1000 miles. The climate is very mild on the coast, and though rainy it is remark ably healthful. East of the Cascade Range the climate is much drier, and in some parts the country becomes arid. The high plateaus have an intensely cold winter climate. The interior "Sea of Mountains" has large tracts of excellent grazing land, with fertile and arable valleys; and some sections of the interior promise well for wheat. But in general the arable oils do not occur in large tracts. On the coast the best soils are densely wooded; hence the cutting and shipping of timber form a leading interest. The principal towns are Victoria, the capital, on Vancouver Island; Esquimault, two miles from Victoria, and with a much better harbor; New Westminster, on Fraser River, 15 miles from its mouth; Langley, on the same stream, 30 miles from its mouth, and accesble to large sea-going vessels; Yale, 80 miles higher up, and at the head of ordinary steam-navigation; Port Moody, with an excellent harbor on Burrard In let: Nanaimo, the chief place for mining and shipping al. (British Columbian coal is of tertiary age, and may be classed as a lignite. Even the anthracites of Queen Charlotte Islands are of late geologic_age, but are metamorphosed by heat and pressure.) Kamloops is a new Canadian Pacific railway town on Thompson River, here navigable for steamboats. The public lands and Pacific railway lands are subHere the North Thompson and South Thompson, ject to pre-emption by actual settlers on very liberal both navigable rivers, flow into Kamloops Lake. An terms, but there is no homestead law. Lands are easily built canal, from Shushwap Lake, at the head of leased, but not sold, to cattle-ranchers, and when the South Thompson, to the great Lake Okanagan, leased are subject to pre-emption by actual settlers. will add 130 miles to the present 300 miles of river The Canadian Pacific railway is controlled by a comaccessible to the Kamloops steamboats. Kamloops is pany who received from the Dominion Government becoming the business centre of South-eastern British those portions of the line already constructed at the Columbia. time of contract (valued at $27,000,000), besides Less than one twenty-fourth of Vancouver Island is $30,000,000 in money, and some 33.000.000 acres of arable. The Queen Charlotte Islands have an admir- land. The distance from Vancouver City, the W. able climate, though the rainfall is great. The soil is terminus, to the terminus on the Atlantic, is 4319 generally good, the fishery resources extensive, and miles. The highest elevation on the line is 3720 feet. timber and coal abundant and good. Of the central About 700 miles of the line are north of lat. 53° N., plateau only one acre in seventy-five is arable, and and half as much north of lat. 54°. summer frosts are severe and frequent. The province imports flour from the U. S., the local supply of grain being inadequate; but that supply is rapidly increasing. Spring wheat, barley, oats, hay, potatoes, apples, turnips, and dairy products are leading articles of farm origin. The fisheries of the colony are still the leading interest. In 1889 the establishments on Fraser River shipped 414.294 cases of canned salmon. There are also canneries on Alert Bay (Cormorant Island), on River's Inlet, and on the Skeena, Nass, Coquitlan, The gold output in 1889 was $588,923, having fallen to about one-quarter of what it was in 1864. Placer-mining is almost the only method of working now followed. A good deal of virgin gold territory remains. Cariboo, the chief mining-place, is in lat. 53°, and is 5000 feet above sea-level. Cassiar is in lat. 59°, and here the lower strata of the soil are always frozen. On Texada Island, in the Gulf of Georgia, are valuable mines of iron now wrought for export to the U. S. There are extensive iron-foundries, boiler and machine works at Victoria. The provincial government is presided over by a fieutenant-governor. There is an executive council, and a legislative assembly of thirty-three members. council, provincial secretary, assistant secretary, minThe civil establishment consists of the president of ister of finance and agriculture, chief clerk in the treasury, commissioner of lands and works, registrar of titles, school-commissioner and their subordinates. four puisne justices, an attorney-general, and a regisThe judicial establishment consists of a chief justico, trar. after having travelled through the United States, he went to England as a newspaper correspondent. During his residence there he published The Americans, by an American in London, and other books, to diffuse more correct ideas with reference to the people and institutions of the United States. Returning to New York in 1835, he published Four Years in Great Britnin, and soon after an anonymous work called Protestant Jesuitism, attacking the course of some prominent religious societies. His next work, Thoughts on the Religious State of the Country, and Reasons for Preferring Episcopacy, published in 1836, was occasioned by his change of church relation. After 1838, for several years, political subjects chiefly occupied his attention, and his writings were considered a valuable aid to the Whig party. He opposed the abolition of slavery, which then began to be urged by the Liberty party, and favored the colonization movement. His Life and Times of Henry Clay was prepared with the sanction and assistance of that great statesman, and published in 1845. In the same year Colton wrote The Rights of Labor, and in 1848 a larger work on Public Economy in the United States, advocating the protective system. In 1852 he was made professor of political economy in Trinity College, Hartford. He died March 13, 1857, at Savannah, Ga., whither he had gone on account of failing health. His last literary labor was connected with his complete edition of the Writings and Speeches of Henry Clay. Mr. Colton also published The Genius and Mission of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States. COLUMBIA, the county-seat of Boone co., Mo., is the terminus of the Columbia branch-22 miles long of the Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific Railroad, and is 140 miles west of St. Louis and 10 miles north of the Missouri River. It has a court-house, 2 national banks, 3 weekly newspapers, 1 monthly and 2 quarterly reviews, 7 churches, 2 female colleges (Stephens and Christian), public schools for white and for colored children. It is the seat of the University of the State of Missouri, which was founded in 1840, and has connected with it the State Agricultural College. The university has excellent buildings, grounds, apparatus, and library, while the Agricultural College has a farm, horticultural garden, and green-house, near the town. On the grounds is a fine mineral spring. The industries of the town comprise 2 flour-mills, a wagon-factory, woollen-factory, and a distillery. It is lighted with gas, and has paved and well-shaded streets. Population, 3985. about 200 feet above the river, which is formed here by the confluence of the Broad and Saluda_Rivers, and 336 feet above the sea. The Congaree River is here about 1800 feet wide, and falls 36 feet within the town limits. It is navigable from the lower end of the city for steamboats, but this waterway is neglected. A canal, six miles long, also formerly united the navigation of the Congaree and the Saluda, and a shorter canal extended from the Congaree to the Broad. These canals might be utilized so as to afford great water-power. Four railways enter the city, the Charlotte, Columbia, and Augusta, the South Carolina, the Greenville and Columbia, and the Wilmington. Columbia, and Augusta. The town is two miles square, regularly laid out, with wide and well-shaded streets, the roadways being macadamized and the sidewalks paved. Among the public buildings are the handsome granite State-house, the U. S. Court-house and post-office, also of granite; a handsome city-hall, and opera-house, the court-house and State penitentiary, and the fireproof buildings of the insane asylum. The South Carolina University has fine buildings, enclosed in grounds containing about sixteen acres. This institution, founded as the South Carolina College, in 1802, has had a varied history; it was closed in 1862, and on reopening in 1866 was made a university. In 1877 it was again closed, but in 1880 it was revived, with two branches-the South Carolina Agricultural and Mechanical College, at Columbia, for whites, and Claflin University, at Orangeburg, for blacks. There are also male and female academies and other private schools, 15 in all, and 3 public schools. The Presbyterian Theological Seminary has fine buildings, and has always had a high reputation. Columbia is noted for the beauty of its public and private grounds, squares, and drives. The State Agricultural Society has extensive fair grounds which, each November, are thronged with visitors. The city has 14 churches, 4 daily and 4 weekly newspapers, 2 national and 3 other banks, and fine blocks of business houses. The amount of business transacted annually is estimated at $2,500,000. By the census of 1880 the industries of the city comprised 52 establishments, with a capital of $141,000, and employing 293 hands. The value of the products was $842,732. This statement did not include the railroad shops, gas-works, granite-quarries, and some other industries. Columbia was founded in 1787, in pursuance of an act of the legislature, and became the State capital in 1790. In 1865, at the time of its occupation by the national army, it suffered greatly from a conflagration. Its population in 1870 was 9298, and in 1890 it was 14,508. COLUMBIA, a town of Lancaster co., Pa., is on the east bank of the Susquehanna River, 81 miles west of Philadelphia, on the Pennsylvania Central COLUMBIA, the county-seat of Maury co., Tenn., Railroad, the Reading and Columbia Railroad, and is on the south bank of Duck River, 45 miles south the Columbia and Port Deposit Railroad. The Sus- of Nashville, on the Louisville and Great Southern quehanna River is here crossed by a bridge more than Railroad, and it is a terminus of two other railroads. a mile long. Columbia has an opera-house, 3 banks It has an opera-house, 4 hotels, 2 national banks, 1 (1 national), several hotels, 3 weekly newspapers, 14 other bank, 2 weekly newspapers, 7 churches, 7 schools, churches, 16 public and 6 private schools. It has 2 and 2 female colleges. Its industries comprise 3 facrolling-mills, 3 foundries, 2 factories, a saw-mill, 2 tories, manufacturing trunks, chairs, ploughs, and grist-mills, 3 machine-shops, 2 round-houses, a stove- carriages, and several flour-mills. It is lighted with factory, and tannery. It has gas and water-works. gas and has water-works. It was settled in 1808. Its It was settled in 1726 by English Quakers, and incor- property is now valued at $2,500,000. Its public debt porated in 1814. It was at one time proposed for the is $50,000. Population, 6484. national capital. Its property is valued at $2,688,000, COLUMBIA, BRITISH, has a sea-frontage of 560 and its public debt is $140,000. Population, 10,597. miles, without taking account of its minor COLUMBIA, the capital of South Carolina, and indentations. To the S. its limit is the county-seat of Richland co., is on the east bank of the parallel of 49° N. lat., which divides it Congaree River, near the centre of the State, in 33° from the United States Territories of Mon59 58 N. lat., and 81° 2′ 3′′ W. long. It stands tana, Idaho, and Washington; on the E SeeVol. VI. P15119 Edin. ed.). ed. (p. he the new Canadian Territories of Alberta and Atha- and other rivers. There is also an immense export of basca, divided from it, except towards the N., by the salted salmon in barrels. eastern ridge and water-shed of the Rocky Mountains; The colonial fisheries are worth several million dollars north of it are parts of the old Canadian North-west- a year. The oolichan, or eulacon (one of the species ern Territory, the parallel of 60° N. lat. being the N. called candle-fish), is both canned and pickled for limit of the province. The western line is the ocean- market. From this fish 10,000 gallons of oil are made front, except towards the N., where Alaska occupies a annually on Nass River alone. The oil is reported narrow strip of territory for some 350 miles. Its grand to sell on the spot for $1 a gallon. A large herring shore-line of 560 miles is greatly multiplied by minor fishery has been started. Herring-oil is largely convolutions; and it is officially stated to extend to shipped, and the scrap is sold in England as fish7181 statute miles, of which 1723 belong to Vancou- guano. ver's Island, 684 to Queen Charlotte's Islands, 334 to Graham Island, and 250 to Moresby Island. There are off the coast 52 islands noteworthy for their extent. The area of the province is given as 355,999 square miles; that of Vancouver is about 12,000 square miles. Graham Island has some 1500 miles of area, and Moresby about 1000 miles. The climate is very mild on the coast, and though rainy it is remarkably healthful. East of the Cascade Range the climate is much drier, and in some parts the country becomes arid. The high plateaus have an intensely cold winter climate. The interior "Sea of Mountains" on Halibut, sturgeon, and many other fish are exceedingly abundant. One establishment on Skidegate Inlet makes large quantities of oil from the black shark. Crabs, shrimps, prawns, and clams are somewhat largely caught. In the province 75,000,000 feet of lumber are sawn each year, but the business is yet in its infancy. Some of the largest saw and planing-mills in the world are to be found here. The red fir is an admirable and abundant ship-timber. The tideland spruce is also highly valued. There are several tanneries and shoe-factories in British Columbia. The native hides are remarkably heavy. Vancouver Island affords a great amount of nemlock bark for tanning. Bear soap and sal soda are also articles of colonial manufacture. British Columbian fur-seal hunting employs four steam-schooners, and a considerable number of minor vessels, including large Indian canoes. The Hudson's Bay Company still carries on business here, but has no exclusive privileges. The gold output in 1889 was $588,923, having fallen to about one-quarter of what it was in 1864. Placer-mining is almost the only method of working now followed. A good deal of virgin gold territory remains. Cariboo, the chief mining-place, is in lat. 53°, and is 5000 feet above sea-level. Cassiar is in lat. 59°, and here the lower strata of the soil are always frozen. has large tracts of excellent grazing land, with fertile and arable valleys; and some sections of the interior promise well for wheat. But in general the arable soils do not occur in large tracts. On the coast the best soils are densely wooded; hence the cutting and shipping of timber form a leading interest. The principal towns are Victoria, the capital, on Vancouver Island; Esquimault, two miles from Victoria, and with a much better harbor; New Westminster, Fraser River, 15 miles from its mouth; Langley, on the same stream, 30 miles from its mouth, and accessible to large sea-going vessels; Yale, 80 miles higher up, and at the head of ordinary steam-navigation; Port Moody, with an excellent harbor on Burrard In let; Nanaimo, the chief place for mining and shipping coal. (British Columbian coal is of tertiary age, and may be classed as a lignite. Even the anthracites of Queen Charlotte Islands are of late geologic age, but are metamorphosed by heat and pressure.) Kamloops is a new Canadian Pacific railway town on Thompson River, here navigable for steamboats. The public lands and Pacific railway lands are subHere the North Thompson and South Thompson, ject to pre-emption by actual settlers on very liberal both navigable rivers, flow into Kamloops Lake. An terms, but there is no homestead law. easily built canal, from Shushwap Lake, at the head of the South Thompson, to the great Lake Okanagan, will add 130 miles to the present 300 miles of river accessible to the Kamloops steamboats. Kamloops is becoming the business centre of South-eastern British Columbia. Less than one twenty-fourth of Vancouver Island is arable. The Queen Charlotte Islands have an admirable climate, though the rainfall is great. The soil is generally good, the fishery resources extensive, and timber and coal abundant and good. Of the central plateau only one acre in seventy-five is arable, and summer frosts are severe and frequent. The province imports flour from the U. S., the local supply of grain being inadequate; but that supply is rapidly increasing. Spring wheat, barley, oats, hay, potatoes, apples, turnips, and dairy products are leading articles of farm origin. The fisheries of the colony are still the leading interest. In 1889 the establishments on Fraser River shipped 414.294 cases of canned salmon. There are also canneries on Alert Bay (Cormorant Island), on River's Inlet, and on the Skeena, Nass, Coquitlan, On Texada Island, in the Gulf of Georgia, are valuable mines of iron now wrought for export to the U. S. There are extensive iron-foundries, boiler and machine works at Victoria. Lands are leased, but not sold, to cattle-ranchers, and when leased are subject to pre-emption by actual settlers. The Canadian Pacific railway is controlled by a company who received from the Dominion Government those portions of the line already constructed at the time of contract (valued at $27,000,000), besides $30,000,000 in money, and some 33,000.000 acres of land. The distance from Vancouver City, the W. terminus, to the terminus on the Atlantic, is 4319 miles. The highest elevation on the line is 3720 feet. About 700 miles of the line are north of lat. 53° N., and half as much north of lat. 54°. The provincial government is presided over by a fieutenant-governor. There is an executive council, and a legislative assembly of thirty-three members. The civil establishment consists of the president of council, provincial secretary, assistant secretary, minister of finance and agriculture, chief clerk in the treasury, commissioner of lands and works, registrar of titles, school-commissioner and their subordinates. four puisne justices, an attorney-general, and a regisThe judicial establishment consists of a chief justice, trar. |