society; excommunication, therefore, is the severest punishment it admits.

How lamentable it is that these sublime principles of morality have been so dreadfully disfigured, as now not to be recognisable in social intercourse! Understanding has, from time to time, endeavored to oppose arbitrary interpretations, and hence divisions arose. Unfortunately, and in direct contradiction to the mild spirit of Christianity, unbelievers in its doctrines have been persecuted. This was the most certain means of confirming dissensions, and is the more to be regretted, as these have always been based upon secondary things, which in themselves never had and never will have any influence on mankind. By degrees the essential was distinguished from the indifferent portion, and in several countries men are now permitted to do whatever they think agreeable to God, provided it do not trouble the order of society. Civil governments are at present superior to the priesthood in wisdom. They allow people to believe that God is fond of perfumes, of music, and of various ceremonies, and they tolerate those who show their love of God by fulfilling their social duties, by esteeming every day alike, and saying with St. Paul, 'the kingdom of God is not meat and drink.' Let us hope that religious toleration will become general, and that the aim may be no longer confounded with the means: the aim must be the same every where and at all times; the means must vary according to the natural dispositions of individuals, to the education they have received, and to the circumstances in which they are placed, but still be dictated by the faculties proper to man. Let us hope that the maxim, that no man ought to suffer in his person, property or reputation for his opinion in matters of mere supernatural doctrines, will be established in every enlightened nation.

It is indispensable to obey the will of God, but it is by no means likely that he is pleased with the errors of his creatures, or that he leads them into temptation by trifling and insignificant commandments. It is evident that they are not arrived at refined * Rom. xiv. 17.

notions of a Supreme Intelligence, who lay the greatest possible stress upon the necessity of a belief in Mahomet's pretended mission; who consider all other virtues as useless if this single point of the prophet's divine appointment be not instantly present to the mind of the aspirant to eternal life. This doctrine, however, prevails throughout the Coran. Farther, Mahomet establishes a scale of meritorious actions in which idle, ridiculous, useless and sometimes mischievous observances occupy the chief place, while many useful and virtuous actions are passed over as unimportant. -May a similar reproach not be made to various creeds among Christians?

Is it not rather probable that God has given to man, and identified with his being, such laws as are necessary to his happiness? Surely it is. They, therefore, who call themselves the ministers of God, ought to make it a principal business to study his will, especially the laws of nature, and to consider it an imperious duty to teach these, and by submission to them, to give an example of belief in their truth and excellence.

On the other hand, those who understand the natural morality of man, will approve of several propositions of Christianity, which are sometimes declared to be unnatural and absurd. These they will consider as inherent in man, noble in their application, beneficial in their effects, and conformable to the law of nature. They will allow that all the faculties common to man and animals are to

be subjected to those proper to man. There are three kinds of positive legislation which I shall call to mind in the order of their imperfection or excellence. In the first, there are only absolute masters, who arbitrarily determine what is to be done or omitted, whose pleasure, in fine, is the only reason of their regulations. This administration is the morality of the strongest; it prevails among barbarous nations, and may, in the 19th century, come to an end among the civilized nations of Europe. The second, which prevails among civilized nations, rejects the right of the strongest, and all sorts of privileges. The animal faculties, however, are permitted full scope for their activity, but without having power

to constrain other persons to minister to their desires. This morality abolishes slavery, the rights of feudality, respects property, and allows every one to exert his faculties for his own advantage, under the sole restriction, not to take aught that belongs to others. It commands us not to do to others what we would not that they do to us. Thus, the inferior animal faculties still dictate the law, though they are limited by those which are proper to man. Many are susceptible of living under the reign of this degree of moral perfection, civil and religious liberty. Their selfishness opposes the grant of monopoly and privileges to others, and their moral feelings reject them as unjust. The desire to acquire, and attachment, that is, commerce and exclusionary patriotism, here exert a very great influence. Nations, therefore, thus far advanced, are united and powerful, and defend their situation vigorously. They use every effort to advantage their community; but, besides, every one lives for himself, brings up his children for his private ends, and uses all his energies to increase his wealth.

The third, and most perfect legislation, results from the supremacy of the peculiarly human nature. The faculties proper to man guide the aim of every action; all are therefore directed towards the universal good. The animal nature becomes a mere auxiliary to this end. Commercial liberty is introduced, national pride and prejudices cease, and nations are allied. Natural morality even here differs in nothing from that of Christianity. Universal charity and love of truth prevail. He who does the will of the Creator, prospers. There is no distinction of person. Every one does to others what he wishes to be done by them. In this way we understand Jesus when he desires his disciples to abandon their wives and children rather than the doctrine he teaches; he only places man above animals. He does not command abandonment of wives and children, if they love each other as themselves, but of those only who do not the will of God. Animals love their offspring, but parental love is certainly inferior to the love of mankind. Jesus therefore acknowledges as mother, brother, or sister, those only who love their neighbors as

themselves.* He wished man to be and to act according to the faculties proper to human nature. If this were so, all would work with pleasure for the common happiness; those who engaged with great talents, would require the same recompense as those who were industrious with slender endowments; private property would be at an end, and general peace would reign on earth.

Jesus felt that his doctrine was too difficult for man as he is, but he supported his superiority by its salutary effects and by experience, which shows that it is perfect. Nations may prepare themselves for such a kingdom of love; but Jesus himself did not rely on this motive alone; he attended also to the motives of reward and punishment. Moreover he was prepared for the disputes his teaching occasioned. Whoever proposes a new doctrine brings forth an object of difference. Now the moral principles of Jesus being especially opposed to riches and worldly distinctions, to that, therefore, which man desires most eagerly, necessarily excited adversaries and caused persecutions. He came not on purpose to excite dissensions between brothers, relations, or man and man; but he knew that dissensions were unavoidable in the natural order of things. Now let every one judge for himself, whether it were better to live quietly in error and in injustice, than to suffer and struggle for truth and general happiness.

Thus, my conviction is, that the moral precepts of Christianity are those of the Creator. I cannot, however, believe that such a pure system of morality will be easily, or soon adopted. But this can take nothing away from its perfection. It will ever remain the object all regulations ought to have in view, for its reception is the indispensable condition to universal peace. In my work on Education, I speak of what will avail in procuring the conditions under which man can receive this moral doctrine. Meanwhile, it is certain that they only usurp the name of Christians, who by their enactments prove that their sole aim is individual happiness; or, who strive after riches and worldly distinctions, and other advancement of their merely private estates; or, who live at the expense

* Mark iii. 35.

of others; or, finally, who are apt enough to laud, but ever ready to act in contradiction to the precepts of Christianity. It is, indeed, blasphemous to bear the title of Christian without acting up to the sacred duties it requires. Let us, therefore, in acknowledging the purity of Christian morality, put it in practice, before we dare to arrogate the noble name of Christians.

Natural goodness of man.

There is, undoubtedly, a great deal of moral evil in the world. Man, it is also certain, is commonly inclined to evil, that is, to follow the activity of the animal faculties, which are, for the most part, very energetic, and submit with difficulty to the guidance of the powers proper to man. I am, nevertheless, astonished to observe so much goodness in the world. Its abundance evidently proves that man is naturally good, and by no means in consequence of his social institutions; these, indeed, are for the most part, calculated to pervert him. The poor are surrounded with temptation and exposed to corruption on all hands, and the lives led by the rich, especially their idleness and luxury, invite them to immorality. All ranks have their superstitions, and all believe in error, as well as in truth; all pay for temporal and also for eternal happiness, and all subscribe to the first dogma proclaimed necessary to secure the good things here, or to purchase the joys of immortality hereafter, an entire abnegation of reason.

A true picture of society would, indeed, be frightful. Happily, man has received from the Creator so large an infusion of goodness, that it is not to be annihilated. It is lamentable, then, that certain persons attach themselves more to the letter than to the spirit of some symbolic propositions of the gospel, and that mystical, contradictory, and noxious interpretations are rather believed in, than simple, reasonable, and salutary views.

There are some naturally good, some who instinctively, so to say, do the things which Christian morality commands. But, have we not all heard religious people say, that this natural disposition