John Flaxman (1755-1826), who found his inspiration in Greek rather than in Roman art. He is chiefly known for his pure classical figures on Wedgwood pottery, but his marble reliefs are also of great beauty. Among the numerous classicists who followed were: Francis Chantrey, Sir Richard Westmacott, E. H. Bailey, and especially John Gibson (1790(1860), whose religious works include a relief of Christ blessing the little children. The classical tendency prevailed until the last quarter of the nineteenth century, but the later part of the period was marked by increasing naturalism. The chief representations of the transition include John Henry Foley (1818-74), whose statues of Goldsmith, Burke, and Grattan at Dublin are noteworthy; Thomas Brock, whose works include the O'Connell monument at Dublin and the Victoria Memorial in London, England's most ambitious monument of sculpture, seventy feet high, and containing many symbolic figures; George Armstead (1828-1905), who carved a St. Matthew and other marble figures for the reredos of the Church of St. Mary, Aberavon; Sir J. E. Boehm (1834-91); Thomas Woolner (1825-93), a member of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. The most important British sculptor of the nineteenth century was Alfred Stevens (1817-75), a pupil of Thorwaldsen, but whose classical training did not preclude great originality in all branches of sculpture. His Wellington monument in St. Paul's Cathedral is perhaps the most important that English sculpture has produced. Mention should also be made of Lord Leighton (1830-1896), whose sculpture excels his painting, and particularly of George Frederick Watts, in whose works great power and originality are united with a high spiritual significance.

The great change in English sculpture since about 1875 is due to French influence. For many years Jules Dalou, a French political exile of 1870, was in charge of the modelling classes in South Kensington Museum. His teachings substituted structure and movement for the previous haphazard methods, and inaugurated a sane and healthy naturalism. His pupils include Hamo Thorneycroft, whose finely-modelled Teucer inaugurated the new movement. Other important sculptors of the same tendencies are E. Onslow Ford, educated at Munich; J. M. Swan, the animal sculptor; and George Frampton, whose works are of a fine decorative quality and quite original (including a very attractive St. George). But the most original and influential figure of British art of the present day is Alfred Gilbert, who excels in all branches of sculpture, and whose very modern style unites the goldsmith's to the sculptor's art. His works include a beautiful high relief of Christ and Angels for the reredos of the St. Albans' Cathedral. Nearly all of these men enjoyed French training, but their art possesses certain qualities which are distinctly national.

In the United States.-Sculpture in the United States is a development of the last three quarters of the nineteenth century. It has developed in connexion with the schools of Western Europe, but without being less individual or national than they. Its history may be divided into three periods: (1) The Classical Period, (1825-50); (2) the Middle Period (1850-80), in which classicism still exists, but increasingly gives way to a more national development; (3) the Contemporary or Cosmopolitan Period, developed as elsewhere, under French influence.

The Classical School.-Neither the Puritan doccrines of the early settlers nor the other religious tendencies of the early nineteenth century were friendly to the development of sculpture. There were no facilities for technical training of any description, no monuments to study or inspire. Consequently, the few sculptors of colonial and early revolutionary periods were unimportant and formed no schools. The real development began in 1825 with the departure of

Horatio Greenough of Boston (1805-52) for Rome. The character of his art is well known from his halfdraped gigantic statue of Washington as the Olympian Zeus, which long stood before the Capitol at Washington. Hiram Powers (1805-73) did similar work, but of a more sentimental character, in such statues as his celebrated "Greek Slave", an example of the nude, chastely treated, and his "Eve Disconsolate". Thomas Crawford (1813-57), a pupil of Thorwaldsen, is known as the sculptor of the bronze "Liberty" surmounting the dome of the Capitol at Washington, the bronze portals of the Capitol, and the pedimental group of the Senate Chamber.

Middle or Native Period.-Even during the classical period the transition to a more national art began. The pioneer was Henry Kirk Brown (1814-86), whose work, unaffected by his Italian study, is best typified in his remarkable equestrian statue of George Washington in Union Square, New York. Another important sculptor of native tendencies was Erastus Dow Palmer (1817-1904), who was practically selftrained and never left America. His ideal nude figures were the best executed up to that time, while his "Angel of the Sepulchre" shows his strength in re ligious subjects. Thomas Ball (1819) set a new standard in public monuments by such works as his equestrian statue of General Washington in Boston and his Lincoln monument in Washington. Representatives of the Classical School during the middle period include the many-sided W. W. Storey, Randolph Rogers, W. H. Rinehart, whose works may be best studied in Baltimore, and Harriet Hosmer. Mention may also be made of the statues of Civil War subjects by John Rogers (1824-1904), which enjoyed great popularity without being real art. The most distinguished artist of the later middle period was J. Q. A. Ward (1830-1910), a pupil of H. K. Brown, whose art is powerful, simple and sculpturesque. He was as successful in his public monuments as in his statues, such as the "Indian Hunter", which stands in Central Park, New York.

Contemporary Sculpture.-The most recent development of American sculpture was ushered in by the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876, which revealed the superiority of European, particularly of the French work. From that time Paris became the training school of American sculptors, with the result of an unprecedented improvement in the technique and content of their art and the gradual development of a national school of great promise. Among the first to show the Parisian influence was O. L. Warner (1844-96), but the most prominent figure thus far in American sculpture is Augustus St. Gaudens (1848– 1907). To the highest technical efficiency he added remarkable powers of characterization. His Shaw memorial relief at Boston and the statue of Lincoln in Chicago were epoch-making, and his General Sherman in Central Park, New York, places him in the first rank of American sculptors. His religious works include a beautiful "Amor Caritas" in the Luxembourg Museum, Paris. Foreign influence is absent from the work of Daniel Chester French (1850), whose art is characterized by restraint and a certain purity of conception. Among his most charming works are (6 'Death and the Sculptor" (Art Institute, Chicago) and the O'Reilly memorial in Boston, with a beautiful figure of Erin mourning. Frederick Macmonnies is the most thoroughly French of all our sculptors, while Herbert Adams has found inspiration in the early Florentine masters.

Other prominent sculptors of the Cosmopolitan period include Bela L. Pratt, of Boston, Charles Grafly, of Philadelphia, Lorado Taft, of Chicago, and Douglas Tilden, of San Francisco, whose art is the most radical of all. But the centre of American sculpture is New York. Mention should be made of Charles H. Niehaus, a master of modelling, who rep

resents the German influence, of F. W. Ruckstuhl, and Carl Bitter, whose decorative work is celebrated, and of Paul Bartlett, the sculptor of the La Fayette statue in Paris. The most important of the animal sculptors are the late Edward Kemys, whose specialty was native American wild animals, E. C. Potter, and A. C. Proctor, who has also portrayed the American Indian; but the most powerful sculptor of the Indian is Cyrus E. Dallin. The two most characteristically American of the younger men are both from the West; Solon H. Borglum, the sculptor of the Indian, the cowboy, and the bronco, and George Gray Barnard, whose strong and simple art unites great breadth with an ideal characterization. There has been little opportunity for ecclesiastical sculpture in the United States; the most important commission was the three portals of St. Bartholomew's Church, New York, completed in 1904; the central portal and frieze by D. C. French and Andrew O'Connor, the others by Herbert Adams and Philip Martiny. These very profuse decorations are excellent from the modern point of view, but too little subordinated to the architecture to be monumental. The sculptures of the Anglican Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York, by Gutzon Borglum are noteworthy.

SPEELMANN, British Sculpture of To-day (London, 1901); CHANCELLOR, Lives of the British Sculptors (London, 1911); TUCKERMAN, Book of the Artists (New York, 1870); CLARKE, Great American Sculptors (Philadelphia, s. d.); HARTMANN, Modern American Sculpture (New York, s. d.); CAFFIN, Masters of American Sculpture (New York, 1903); TAFT, Hist. of American Sculpture (New York, 1903).

GEORGE KRIEHN.

Scupi. See SCOPIA, ARCHDIOCESE OF. Scutari, ARCHDIOCESE OF (SCUTARENSIS). The first known bishop was Bassus (387). The bishops of Scutari were at first subject to the Metropolitan of Salonica, Primate of all Illyricum, but when Justinian I transferred the primacy to Achrida, they became suffragans of the latter see. In the early Middle Ages Scutari was suffragan of Dioclea. From the seventh to the middle of the twelfth century no bishop is known. Among its best-known bishops are: Francis II de Sanctis (1471-1491); Fra Dominicus Andrijasevic (d. at Rome in 1639), a famous theologian and philosopher, friend of Gregory XV and of Urban VIII; Dominicus II Babic (1677-1686); Antonius III de Nigris (1693-1702), martyred in 1702 by the Turks. In 1867 Scutari was æque principaliter united with the Archdiocese of Antivari, and in this way Pius IX made Scutari an archdiocese and metropolis. The first archbishop of the united diocese, Mgr. Charles Pooten, native of Teveran near Aachen, who had been Apostolic Administrator of Antivari (1834-1855), died at Scutari on 15 January, 1886. From 1063 to 1886 only 53 bishops of Scutari are known. On 23 October, 1886, the Archdiocese of Scutari was separated from that of Antivari, and remained an archdiocese and a metropolis with three suffragans: Alessio, Sappa, and Pulati. The ancient See of Ulcinium, in the territory of Scutari, was in 1571 occupied by the Turks and ceased to exist, for no Christians remained. During the existence of Ulcinium, its bishops were suffragans of the Metropolitan of Antivari or of that of Dioclea. About the middle of the sixteenth century the ancient See of Suacium was forever suppressed. Other ancient sees in this territory were the Sees of Dinnastrum and Balazum.

The Archdiocese of Scutari comprises 29 parishes, of which 8 are held by Franciscans, and has a Catholic population of about 33,807. Its present metropolitan is Mgr. Paschalis Guerini, b. at Pezzagno in Dalmatia, 21 May, 1821; ordained priest on 27 June, 1848; appointed Coadjutor Bishop of Scutari and titular Bishop of Paphos on 6 May, 1879; elected as Metropolitan and Archbishop of Scutari on 23 November, 1886. The episcopal residence is at Scutari. The

Archdiocese of Scutari has a Collegium Pontificium Albaniense founded as a central seminary (1853) by the Holy See. Burned and again destroyed by the Turks, it was reopened in 1859, the Emperor of Austria, Francis Joseph I, bearing two-thirds of the expense. The Austrian Government supported at first fifteen seminarians, now twenty-four; Propaganda supports ten; the remaining eleven are at the charge of their bishops. It is administered by the Jesuits. A preparatory school, the Collegium S. Francisci Xaverii, was opened in 1841 by the Jesuits, to which in 1868, by the wish of Pius IX, a course of philosophy was added and later a trade-school (Handelsschule). The Franciscans have a college or so-called probandat at Scutari and a novitiate at Rubigo. The Scolopii have an orphanage for boys, and there is also an orphanage for poor girls. There are Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, and four Catholic elementary schools. The Franciscans have hospices at Arramadhe-Scutari and at Kastrati, and a monastery at Scutari. The schools and colleges are sustained mostly by the Propaganda and by the Austrian Government.

FARLATI, Illyricum sacrum, VII, 304-334; GAMS, Series episcoporum Eccl. Cath. (Ratisbon, 1873, 1886), 408; THEINER, Monumenta Slavorum, I, nn. 170, 254, 284, 285, 286, 352, 368, 640; II, nn. 78, 228 (p. 214), 233 (p. 217-18); NARKOVIĆ, Dukljansko-barska metropolija (Zagreb, 1902), 39 sq.; NIHACEVIĆ, Iz Albanije o Albaniji u Serafinskom Perivoju (LijevnoSarajevo, 1909), Godina XXIII, 126–129.

66

ANTHONY-LAWRENCE GANCEVIĆ.

Scythopolis, a titular metropolitan see of Palæs tina Secunda. It is the ancient Bethsan (q. v.) so often mentioned in the Bible, as proved by texts in the writings of Josephus. Its Greek name Scythopolis is very likely derived from a colony of Scythians who invaded Palestine in the seventh century B. C. (Herodotus, I, 103-5), and left some of their number behind (Pliny, "Hist. natur.", V, 16; John Malalas, 'Chronographia", V, in P. G., XCVII, 236; George Syncellus, "Chronographia", 214 etc.). The earliest known use of the name is in II Mach., xii, 29, and in the Greek text of Judith, iii, 10. Although Scythopolis was the only town situated on the right bank of the Jordan, it was the capital of Decapolis and in the fourth century became the civil and ecclesiastical metropolis of Palæstina Secunda. Several bishops are known. Patropnilus, intimate friend of Arius and his adherents, assisted at the Council of Nicæa in 325 and at various councils of the Arians till 360. Cruel and fanatical, he ill-treated the Catholic bishops exiled to Scythopolis, especially St. Eusebius of Vercelli. He was deposed by the Council of Seleucia in 359 and died soon after; his remains were desecrated by the pagans in 361. We may also mention Philip and Athanasius, both Arians; Saturninus, present at the Council of Constantinople in 381; Theodosius, friend of St. John Chrysostom; Acacius, friend of St. Cyril of Alexandria; St. Servianus, killed by the Monophysites in 452, honoured on 21 February; John, who wrote in defence of the Council of Chalce don; Theodore, who about 553 was compelled to sign an anti-origenist profession of faith, still preserved (Le Quien, "Oriens christianus.", III, 681-94).

At the time of the Frankish occupation, the see was transferred to Nazareth; the Greeks long preserved the Sees of Scythopolis and Nazareth, but only the latter now exists. Among illustrious Christians of Scythopolis were: St. Procopius, martyr (8 July), who belonged to the clergy of the town (Delehaye, "Les légendes hagiographiques", Paris, 1905, 144-6); Asterius, commentator of the Psalms in the fourth century, cited with praise by St. Jerome; Cyril, charming historian of monastic life in Palestine, who wrote seven lives of saints. In the sixth century there were four churches at Scythopolis, dedicated to St. Thomas, St. John, St. Procopius, and St. Basil, a local martyr. Many monks lived in the

town and its environs, occupied in making baskets and fans from the palms in the neighbouring forests (Sozomen, "Hist. ecclés.", VIII, 13); with them the four Tall Brothers took refuge when expelled from Egypt by the patriarch Theophilus for socalled origenist ideas. In 634 the Greeks were defeated by the Arabs in the marshes of Bethsan; in 1182 the little town fought valiantly against Saladin. To-day Beisan is a Mussulman village, situated by the railway from Caipha to Mzerib in the Hauran. The ancient ruins still exist, especially those of the theatre which measures 130 metres in half-circumference; the ruined acropolis stands in the hill of Kalat el Hosn. The climate is charming, the land very fertile and well watered. Rabbi Simon ben Lakish said: "If paradise is in Palestine, its gate is at Beisan".

SMITH, Dict. Gr. and Roman Geog., s. v. Bethsan; ROBINSON, Biblical Researches, 326-9; Survey of Western Palestine. Mémoires II (London, 1882), 101-13; NEUBAUER, La géographie du Talmud (Paris, 1868), 174 sqq.; GUÉRIN, Description de la Palestine. Samarie, I (Paris, 1874), 284-98; LEGENDRE in Dict.

de la Bible, s. v. Bethsan; BOUILLON in Echos d'Orient, I, 371-8; THOMSEN, Loca sancta (Halle, 1907), 106. S. VAILHÉ.

Seal. The use of a seal by men of wealth and position was common before the Christian era. It was natural then that high functionaries of the Church should adopt the habit as soon as they became socially and politically important. An incidental allusion in one of St. Augustine's letters (ccxvii to Victorinus) lets us know that he used a seal. The practice spread and it seems to be taken for granted by Clovis at the very beginning of the Merovingian period (Mon. Germ. Hist.: Leg., II, 2). Later ecclesiastical synods require that letters under the bishop's seal should be given to priests when for some reason they lawfully quitted their own proper diocese. So it was enacted at Chalon-sur-Saône in 813. Pope Nicholas I in the same century complains that the bishops of Dôle and Reims had contra morem sent their letters to him unsealed (Jaffé, “Regesta”, nn. 2789, 2806, 2823). The custom of bishops possessing seals may from this date be assumed to have been pretty general. At first they were only used for securing the document from impertinent curiosity and the seal was commonly attached to the ties with which it was fastened. When the letter was opened by the addressee the seal was necessarily broken. Later the seal served as an authentication and was attached to the face of the document. The deed was thus only held to be valid so long as the seal remained intact. It soon came to follow from this point of view that not only real persons like kings and bishops, but also every kind of body corporate, cathedral chapters, municipalities, monasteries, etc., also required a common seal to validate the acts which were executed in their

name.

During the early Middle Ages seals of lead, or more properly "bulls" (q. v.), were in common use both in East and West, but except in the case of the papal chancery, these leaden authentications soon went out of favour in western Christendom and it became the universal practice to take the impressions in wax. In England hardly any waxen seals have survived of earlier date than the Norman Conquest. In the British Museum collection the earliest bishop's seals preserved are those of William of St. Carileph, Bishop of Durham (1081-96) and of St. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury (1093-1109). The importance of the seal as a means of authentication necessitated that when authority passed into new hands the old seal should be destroyed and a new one made. When the pope dies it is the first duty of the Cardinal Camerlengo to obtain possession of the Fisherman's Ring, the papal signet, and to see that it is broken up. A similar practice prevailed in the Middle Ages and it is often alluded to by historians, as it seems to have been

GIRY, Manuel de Diplomatique (Paris, 1894), 622-657; DEMAY, Inventaire des sceaux de la Normandie (Paris, 1881); BIRCH, Seals, Connoisseurs' Library (1907); BIRCH, Catalogue of Seals in British Museum (London, 1887-99); D'ARCQ, Collection de Sceaux (3 vols., Paris, 1868)." HERBERT THURSTON.

Seal of Confession, THE LAW OF THE.-In the "Decretum" of the Gratian who compiled the edicts of previous councils and the principles of Church law which he published about 1151, we find (secunda pars, dist. VI, c. II) the following declaration of the law as to the seal of confession: "Deponatur sacerdos qui peccata pœnitentis publicare præsumit", i. e., "Let the priest who dares to make known the sins of his penitent be deposed", and he goes on to say that the violator of this law should be made a life-long, ignominious wanderer. Canon 21 of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), binding on the whole Church, lays down the obligation of secrecy in the following words: "Let the priest absolutely beware that he does not by word or sign or by any manner whatever in any way betray the sinner: but if he should happen to need wiser counsel let him cautiously seek the same without any mention of person. For whoever shall dare to reveal a sin disclosed to him in the tribunal of penance we decree that he shall be not only deposed from the priestly office but that he shall also be sent into the confinement of a monastery to do perpetual penance" (see Hefele-Leclercq, "Hist. des Conciles" at the year 1215; also Mansi or Harduin, "Coll. conciliorum"). It is to be noted that neither this canon nor the law of the "Decretum" purports to enact for the first time the secrecy of confession. In a context cited further on the great fifteenth-century English canonist, Lyndwood, speaks of two reasons why a priest is bound to keep secret a confession, the first being on account of the sacrament because it is almost (quasi) of the essence of the sacrament to keep secret the confession. (Cf. also Jos. Mascardus, "De probationibus", Frankfort, 1703, arg. 378.)

ENGLAND.-Medieval England.-At a much earlier date in Anglo-Saxon England we meet with several laws concerning confession. The laws of Edward the Elder (921-4), son of Alfred the Great, enjoin: "And if a man guilty of death (i. e., who has incurred the penalty of death) desires confession let it never be denied him". This injunction is repeated in the forty-fourth of the secular laws of King Canute (1017-35). These laws are prefaced thus: "This then is the secular law which by the counsel of my 'witan' I will that it be observed all over England". The laws of King Ethelred who reigned from 978 to 1016 declare (V, 22): "And let every Christian man do as is needful to him: let him strictly keep his Christianity and accustom himself frequently to shrift (i. e., confess): and fearlessly declare his sins". The very close connexion between the religion of the Anglo-Saxons and their laws, many of which are purely ordinances of religious observance enacted by the State, the repeated recognition of the supreme jurisdiction of the pope, and the various instances of the application in the Church in England of the laws of the Church in general lead conclusively to the opinion that the ecclesiastical law of the secrecy of confession was recognized by the law of the land in Anglo-Saxon England.

In the period between the Norman Conquest and the Reformation we find the law of the Church in general as to the inviolability of the seal of confession stringently enjoined by English councils. The Coun