[53] LAND SURVEYING. SECTION L DESCRIPTION AND USE OF THE INSTRUMENTS. 1. OF THE CHAIN. LAND is measured with a chain, called Gunter's Chain, from its inventor, the length of which is 4 poles, or 22 yards, or 66 feet. It consists of 100 equal links; and the length of each link is therefore of a yard, or of a foot, or 7.92 inches. 66 100 Land is estimated in acres, roods, and perches. An acre is equal to 10 square chains, or as much as 10 chains in length and 1 chain in breadth. Or, in yards, it is 220 × 22=4840 square yards. Or, in poles, it is 40 × 4=160 square poles. Or, in links, it is 1000 x 100 = 100000 square links: these being all the same quantity. Also, an acre is divided into 4 parts called roods, and a rood into 40 parts called perches, which are square poles, or the square of a pole of 54 yards long, or the square of of a chain, or of 25 links, which is 625 square links. So that the divisions of land measure, will be thus: 625 sq. links = 1 pole or perch 40 perches = 1 rood The length of lines, measured with a chain, are best set down in links as integers, every chain in length being 100 links; and not in chains and decimals. Therefore, after the content is found, it will be in square links; then cut off five of the figures on the right-hand for decimals, and the rest will be acres. These decimals are then multiplied by 4 for roods, and the decimals of these again by 40 for perches. EXAM. Suppose the length of a rectangular piece of ground be 792 links, and its breadth 385; to find the area in acres, roods, and perches. 792 3.04920 2. OF THE PLAIN TABLE. THIS instrument consists of a plain rectangular board, of any convenient size: the centre of which, when used, is fixed by means of screws to a three-legged stand, having a ball and, socket, or other joint, at the top, by means of which, when the legs are fixed on the ground, the table is inclined in any direction. To the table belong various parts, as follow. 1. A frame of wood, made to fit round its edges, and to be taken off, for the convenience of putting a sheet of paper on the table. One side of this frame is usually divided into equal parts, for drawing lines across the table, parallel or perpendicular to the sides; and the other side of the frame is divided into 360 degrees, to a centre in the middle of the table; by means of which the table may be used as a theodolite, &c. 2. A magnetic needle and compass, either screwed into the side of the table, or fixed beneath its centre, to point out the directions, and to be a check on the sights. 3. An index, which is a brass two-foot scale, with either a small telescope, or open sights set perpendicularly on the ends. These sights and one edge of the index are in the same plane, and that is called the fiducial edge of the index. To use this instrument, take a sheet of paper which will cover it, and wet it to make it expand; then spread it flat on the table, pressing down the frame on the edges, to stretch it and keep it fixed there; and when the paper is become dry, it will, by contracting again, stretch itself smooth and flat from any cramps and unevenness. On this paper is to be drawn the plan or form of the thing measured." Thus, begin at any proper part of the ground, and make a point on a convenient part of the paper or table, to represent that place on the ground; then fix in that point one leg of the compasses, or a fine steel pin, and apply to it the fiducial edge of the index, moving it round till through the sights you perceive some remarkable object, as the corner of a field, &c; and from the station-point draw a line with the point of the compasses along the fiducial edge of the index, which is called setting or taking the object: then set another object or corner, and draw its line; do the same by another; and so on, till as many objects are taken as may be thought fit. Then measure from the station towards as many of the objects as may be necessary, but not more, taking the requisite offsets to corners or crooks in the hedges, laying the measures down on their respective lines on the table, Then Then at any convenient place measured to, fix the table in the same position, and set the objects which appear from that place; and so on, as before. And thus continue till the work is finished, measuring such lines only as are necessary, and determining as many as may be by intersecting lines of direction drawn from different stations. Of shifting the Paper on the Plain Table. When one paper is full, and there is occasion for more; draw a line in any manner through the farthest point of the last station line, to which the work can be conveniently laid down; then take the sheet off the table, and fix another on, drawing a line over it, in a part the most convenient for the rest of the work; then fold or cut the old sheet by the line drawn on it, applying the edge to the line on the new sheet, and, as they lie in that position, continue the last station line on the new paper, placing on it the rest of the measure, beginning at where the old sheet left off. And so on from sheet to sheet. When the work is done, and you would fasten all the sheets together into one piece, or rough plan, the aforesaid lines are to be accurately joined together, in the same manner as when the lines were transferred from the old sheets to the new ones. But it is to be noted, that if the said joining lines, on the old and new sheets, have not the same inclination to the side of the table, the needle will not point to the original degree when the table is rectified; and if the needle be required to respect still the same degree of the compass, the easiest way of drawing the line in the same position, is to draw them both parallel to the same sides of the table, by means of the equal divisions marked on the other two sides. 3. OF THE THEODOLITE. THE theodolite is a brazen circular ring, divided into 360 degrees, &c, and having an index with sights, or a telescope, placed on the centre, about which the index is moveable; also a compass fixed to the centre, to point out courses and check the sights; the whole being fixed by the centre on a stand of a convenient height for use. In using this instrument, an exact account, or field-book, of all measures and things necessary to be remarked in the plan, must be kept, from which to make out the plan on returning home from the ground. Begin at such part of the ground, and measure in such directions as are judged most convenient; taking angles or directions to objects, and measuring such distances as appear necessary necessary, under the same restrictions as in the use of the plain table. And it is safest to fix the theodolite in the original position at every station, by means of fore and back objects, and the compass, exactly as in using the plain table; registering the number of degrees cut off by the index when directed to each object; and, at any station, placing the index at the same degree as when the direction towards that station was taken from the last preceding one, to fix the theodolite there in the original position. The best method of laying down the aforesaid lines of direction, is to describe a pretty large circle; then quarter it, and lay on it the several numbers of degrees cut off by the index in each direction, and drawing lines from the centre to all these marked points in the circle. Then, by means of a parallel ruler, draw from station to station, lines parallel to the aforesaid lines drawn from the centre to the respective points in the circumference. 4. OF THE CROSS. THE Cross consists of two pair of sights set at right angles to each other, on a staff having a sharp point at the bottom, to fix in the ground. The cross is very useful to measure small and crooked pieces of ground. The method is, to measure a base or chief line, usually in the longest direction of the piece, from corner to corner; and while measuring it, finding the places where perpendiculars would fall on this line, from the several corners and bends in the boundary of the piece, with the cross, by fixing it, by trials, on such parts of the line, as that through one pair of the sights both ends of the line may appear, and through the other pair the corresponding bends or corners; and then measuring the lengths of the said perpendiculars. REMARKS. Besides the fore-mentioned instruments, which are most commonly used, there are some others; as, The perambulator, used for measuring roads, and other great distances, level ground, and by the sides of rivers. It has a wheel of 84 feet, or half a pole, in circumference, by the turning of which the machine goes forward: and the distance measured is pointed out by an index, which is moved round by clock work. Levels, with telescopic or other sights, are used to find the level between place and place, or how much one place is higher or lower than another. And in measuring any sloping or oblique line, either ascending or descending, a small pocket level is useful for showing how many links for each chain are to be deducted, to reduce the line to the horizontal length. An offset-staff is a very useful instrument, for measuring the offsets and other short distances. It is 10 links in length, being divided and marked at each of the 10 links. Ten small arrows, or rods of iron or wood, are used to mark the end of every chain length, in measuring lines. And sometimes pickets, or staves with flags, are set up as marks or objects of direction. Various scales are also used in protracting and measuring on the plan or paper; such as plane scales, line or chords, protractor, compasses, reducing scale, parallel and perpendicular rules, &c. Of plane scales, there should be several sizes, as a chain in 1 inch, a chain in of an inch, a chain in an inch, &c. And of these, the best for use are those that are laid on the very edges of the ivory scale, to mark off distances, without compasses. SECTION II. THE PRACTICE OF SURVEYING. THIS part contains the several works proper to be done in the field, or the ways of measuring by all the instruments, and in all situations. PROBLEM I. To Measure a Line or Distance. To measure a line on the ground with the chain: Having provided a chain, with 10 small arrows, or rods, to fix one into the ground, as a mark, at the end of every chain; two persons take hold of the chain, one at each end of it; and all the 10 arrows are taken by one of them, who goes foremost, and is called the leader; the other being called the follower, for distinction's sake. A picket, or station-staff, being set up in the direction of the line to be measured, if there do not appear some marks naturally in that direction, they measure straight towards it, the leader fixing down an arrow at the end of every chain, which the follower always takes up, as he comes at it, till all the ten arrows are used. They are then all returned to the leader, to use over again. And thus the arrows are changed from the one to the other at every 10 chains length, till the whole line is finished; then the number of changes of |