source.

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beasts of prey in general. Moverito swell, to be agitated. —131. Mella-foliis, i. e. so that men could no longer obtain it from that See on E. IV. 30. Ignemque removit; i. e. hid it in the veins of the flint, so that ingenuity was required to force it out. 132. Passim; with currentia. Rivis. Gr. 414 and 3. A. & S. 247. 2.-133. Usus need, necessity. It is virtually personified; whence meditando, which is by reflection, study. -134. Et. We might have expected ut for et here, and et for ut (which is given by some MSS.) in the next line: Virgil, however, has chosen to vary the expression, coupling a particular fact with a general, and then subjoining a second particular, as a co-ordinate clause with the two. Sulcis, i. e. by ploughing. Gr. 414 and 4. A. & S. 247. 3. Frumenti.. herbam. See on E. V. 26.135. Venus. Gr. 425. 2. 2). A. & S. 251. Abstrusum = that lay concealed (in them); lit. thrust away (by Jupiter). Cf. A. VI. 6. Excuderet. Cf. A. I. 174. -136. Navigation then began, canoes being made by hollowing out trees. Cf. Ov. M. I. 94, 95 and notes. Sensere felt the weight of.-137. Navita tum. The further progress of navigation. Stellis - fecit numbered the stars and gave them their names; Le. they divided them into constellations. Facere nomen alicui is a phrase to which numeros is here added by a kind of zeugma. Cf. Psalms, cxlvii. 4. — 138. Pleiadas; seven stars in the neck of Taurus, called also Vergiliae, “quia vere oriantur." Cf. Hor. C. IV. 14 21. They thus marked the beginning of the sailing season. The name is derived from Tλée, to sail. The word is here a tetrasyllable. Gr. 363. A. & S. 204. For the lengthening of the final syllable, see Gr. 669. V. A. & S. 309. 2 (1). — Hyadas. See on Ov. M. III. 595. The name is derived from veu, to rain. - Lycaonis. Gr. 397 (1). A. & S. 211, R. 7 (1). Arcton. See on Ov. M. II. 129, 171. Callisto, there mentioned, was a daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia. -139. Captare... fallere. Gr. 549. A. & S. 269. - Fallere; sc. aves, implied in the preceding feras. — 140. Inventum; sc. est. -Saltus forest-pastures; i. e. the glades or open spaces in forests, where cattle pastured and wild beasts wandered. They were hedged round in hunting by nets and watchers, to prevent the animals from breaking out. -141. Fishing was also invented. Funda= with the casting-net. It was pear-shaped or conical, and was loaded with lead to make it sink. It was thrown forcibly into the water; hence the verb verberat lashes. The English phrase, “whip the stream," is similar. - 142. Alta petens seeking the deep parts; i. e. of the river. Pelago. Gr. 422. 1. 2); 47, II. A. & S. 254, R. 3; 51. Lina drag-net, seine.

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143. Ferri rigor = ferrum rigidum; sc. venit (= provenit, inventus est), from v. 145; alluding to the hardening of iron for the manu

facturing of tools. The inversion of syntax, whereby the adjective idea is expressed by a noun of kindred meaning, is very common in all languages, and is frequently used by the poets with great effect; as, the might of Gabriel" (Milton); i. e. the mighty Gabriel. Atque and particularly; giving a single instance of the implements that were then invented. This is a frequent practice with our poet. Serrae. The invention of the saw was attributed by some to Daedalus, by others to Perdix, his nephew. See on Ov. M. VIII. Introd. — 144. Primi; sc. homines. —146. Improbus = exacting, excessive. Some critics make it persevering. See on Hor. C. III. 24. 62. Egestas = want; especially of food. back to his subject. — 147 Prima Ceres. The connection is as follows: Before the time of Jupiter there was no tillage (v. 125); but under his reign various arts were invented, and especially that of agriculture, by Ceres. See on v. 7.-148. Glandes. See on v. 8. Sacrae is explained by Dodona. See on Chaonias, E. IX. 13.Silvae is the genitive limiting

This leads the poet

149. Deficerent began to fail. glandes and arbuta; though some make it the subject of deficerent. Dodona, famous for its oak groves, is used poetically for the oaks themselves. 150. Et even; to be construed with frumentis. Labor injury, trouble, plagues. As examples of labor used of the sufferings of things inanimate, see v. 79, and II. 343, 372. Additus (sc. est); i. e. by Jupiter. Mala baleful, destructive. Cf. v. 129. — 151. Esset. Gr. 291; 492. A. & S. 181; 262. —Robigo =blight, mildew. To avert it the Romans worshipped a deity named Robigus, or Robigo, whom they propitiated by a festival called Robigalia. Segnis unfruitful, worthless. - 152. Subit = comes up (in its stead). Silva. See on v. 76. It is explained by the two following nouns. -154. Infelix... avenae. See on E. V. 37. — 155. Quod nisi. See on E. IX. 14. Assiduis = assidue. Gr. 443. A. & S. 205, R. 15 (a). Herbam. See on v. 69.157. Umbram; i. e. the trees and foliage that make the shade. Votis. Vows were paid to Jupiter Pluvius. - 158. Acervum. Cf. v. 185. 159. Concussa... quercu = by shaking the oak; i. e. for acorns. -160. Dicendum; sc. est mihi. Et etiam. Arma ments, utensils, tools. Cf. A. 177.· 161. Quis 1; 602. II. 1. A. & S. 136, R. 2; 279. 10 (a) and (f). have never been able. For the perfect, see on v. flexi is explained by vv. 169, 170. Primum is often used in the beginning of an enumeration without a following deinde or tum, the office of which, however, is often performed by vero, etiam, autem, etc. Grave robur the ponderous and strong; lit. the ponderous strength: robur aratri for robustum aratrum, like ferri rigor, v. 143, and aeternaque ferri Robora, A. VII. 609.163. Tarda tarde;

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imple

sine. Gr. 187.

Nec potuere

49. — 162. In

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qualifying volventia. See on assiduis, v. 155. Eleusinae matris; i. e. of Demeter or Ceres, who was chiefly worshipped at Eleusis in Attica. She is called mater, probably in allusion to her name, Demeter, i. e. Mother Earth. 164. Tribula, traheae, two kinds of threshing-sledge; the former of which consisted of a thick wooden board, which was armed underneath with pieces of iron or sharp flints, and drawn over the corn by a yoke of oxen, either the driver or a heavy weight being placed upon it, for the purpose of separating the grain and cutting the straw; the latter, a kind of drag, sometimes used, was probably either entirely of stone or made of the trunk of a tree. Iniquo immoderate, very great. Pondere. Gr. 428. A. & S. 211, R. 6. Rastri. See on v. 94. · 165 Virgea... supellex seems to include baskets, colanders, &c., as well as the hurdles and the fan. Celei; the father of Triptolemus and Demophon, and the first priest of Ceres at Eleusis. She instructed him in agriculture and in the making of wicker-work implements. 166. Crates. See on v. 94 Vannus = the winnowing-fan. This was a broad basket, into which the corn mixed with chaff was received after threshing, and was then thrown in the direction of the wind. It is called, mystica, because at the celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries it was carried in the processions in honor of Iacchus, the son of Demeter and Zeus, sometimes confounded with Bacchus (as in E. VII. 61), and sometimes distinguished from him. Bacchus was the son of Zeus and Semele. Ceres, Celeus, and Iacchus are here introduced to give a religious dignity to what might otherwise seem trivial. 167 Multo. Gr. 418 and I. A. & S. 256, R. 16 (3). Ante; i. e. before they are needed. Memor provisa carefully (mindfully) provided. Provisa repones = providebis et repones. Gr. 579. A. & S. 274. 3 (b).168. Digna deserved, merited. Si manet, for si vis, ut te maneat. Divini ruris; either as the abode of the rural deities, or, at least, as pleasing to them. -169. Continuo in silvis in the very woods. Continuo is explained by in silvis. The words can only mean that the young clm while yet in the woods is bent and made to grow in the required shape, whatever may be thought of the possibility of the thing, which Keightley denies. -170. Burim the plough-beam. Gr. 85. III. and 2. A. & S. 79. 2. The buris was a piece of strong wood, naturally or artificially curved, to one end of which was affixed the pole, to the other the dentale, and into it was mortised the stiva. It therefore formed the body of the plough. Curvi... aratri. As the buris gave the characteristic bend to the plough, it is here called by the plough's name, aratri.-171. Huic; sc. burt. - Ab stirpe from the lower part; i. e. of the temo. Connect with protentus. Temo the pole. Sc. aplatur. It was part of the plough, as well as of the cart or car

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riage. The yoke was fastened to the end of it, and by means of it the oxen drew. Sometimes the temo was of the same piece of timber with the buris and share-beam (dentale), though not in the kind of plough here described. 172. Aures = mould-boards. These rose on each side of the share (vomer), bending outwardly in such a manner as to throw on either hand the soil which had been previously

Fig. 1.1. dentalia; a. buris; 3. temo; 4. stiva; 5. manicula; 6. vomer; 7. jugum; a. funicuius; b. clavus; c. collare; d. lora subjugia.

Fig. II.

Fig. IV.

1

A plough with mould-boards, aratrum auritum; 7, 7. aures.

loosened and raised by the share, and were adjusted to the sharebeam which was made double (duplici dorso) for the purpose of receiving them. Duplici... dorso. Gr. 428. A. & S. 211, R. 6. Dentalia = the share-beam; a piece of wood fixed horizontally at the lower end of the buris, and to which the share was fitted. In some cases it was itself shod with iron. It is not certain whether it was one solid piece of timber, with a space to admit the end of the buris, or two pieces fastened on each side of it and running to a point. The plural dentalia is used by Virgil in speaking of one plough, but

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it is probably nothing more than a usual poetic license.-173. Ante. See on v. 167. Jugo; a piece of wood, straight in the middle and curved towards both ends, which was attached to the end of the pole of the plough or cart, and went over the necks of the oxen. Fagus stivaque; by hendiadys for stiva fagina. Gr. 704. II. 2. A. & S. 323. 2 (3).— 174. Stiva the plough-handle. The stiva was originally mortised into the buris, but it sometimes formed one piece with it. It had a cross piece named manicula, by which the ploughman held and directed the plough. Cursus...imos the lowest courses, referring, perhaps, to the turning of the plough at the end of the furrow. Most editors read currus (= carriage). H. 500. A. & S. 264, 5. — 175. Explorat = searches (i. e. dries) and tests. The above diagrams, illustrating Virgil's plough, are taken from the work of Schulz, De Aratri Romani Forma et Compositione.

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176 Possum. . ni refugis. Gr. 508. A. & S. 262, R. 1. Tibi Maccenas is addressed throughout as the ideal reader. 177. Refugis; i. e. from hearing, as in A. II. 12 from speakingObserve the mood and tense: I can repeat . . . but I see you start off-178. Cum primis = = as a matter of the first importance, especially. -179. Vertenda manu. The earth had to be turned up and worked, or kneaded, with the hand. This operation really preceded the aequanda cylindro, as the preparation of the floor was the first thing. Gr. 704. IV. 2. A. & S. 323. 4 (2). Creta = argilla, as in II. 215. The clay was for the purpose of making it harden and bake. -180. Pulvere; for siccitate, effect for cause. -181 Tum =et tum; i. e. if the threshing-floor cracks. Illudant = may mock; i.e. the threshing-floor and the husbandman's labor. See II. 375, where the goats are said to mock, to disport themselves with the young vine. Gr. 485. A. & S. 260. II. Pestes; as injuring the floor and annoying the husbandman. –182. Posuit... fecit; aoristic perfects. See on v. 49. — 183. Oculis capti = blind; lit.

taken in the eyes. Gr. 429. A. & S. 250. I. The expression seems to come from the use of capi, for to be injured. The mole has eyes, though they are very small, and much covered over. Talpae. Gr. 44 Ex. A. & S. 42. 2.-184. Inventus; which is found in holes, and which therefore is likely to creep into holes. Bufo is said to occur nowhere else in the classics. Plurima. Gr. 453. 5. A. & S. 206 (7) (a) and (b). —185. Monstra = unsightly creatures; sometimes, as here, without reference to their size. Farris. Cf. on v. 73.186. Senectae. Gr. 385. 3. A. & S. 223. Ants live but for a short time (supposed to be for one year only), so that senectac is a poetical expression for hiemi, which is the old age of their brief existence. It is well known that the ancients were in error about the habits of the ant, which has no storehouses, and remains torpid dur.