the comparison of various languages now in or which formerly had been in existence, we shall scarcely find that any two languages agree together in the number of voices. Thus the Hebrew, in the opinion of some, has three; of others, has five voices: the Greek has three, the Latin two, the English certainly only one. These voices are in general distinguished from the nature, as it is called, of action or suffering; and all verbs are to be reduced to one of three classes-acting, suffering, or neither the one nor the other. Such a division may very well suit this or any other subject: the verb must be or not be any given thing, that may be proposed. There cannot be a doubt, that many verbs imply action, and the agent may become the patient, and he may suffer either from himself or another. Thus for the verb beat: A beats B; A is beaten by B; or A beats himself; instead of using the verb is, and the noun himself, these parts may be comprehended in the inflection of the verb, but this modification of the verb can apply only to a small class of words relating to actions. What are we to do with such verbs as sleep and similar ones? They must be called neuters; but then this class of neuters may be made very large, and verbs may be introduced which, if known to the Greeks and Latins, have not been formed in a separate class. Thus to act and to cause to act, may be distinguished in the verb as in the Hebrew language: and instead therefore of classing the verbs under three voices, active, passive, and neuter, we should perhaps look rather to the idiom of each language, and from that discover the changes made on the radix of the verb, to which if we please the name of voice may be applied. Thus in parts of action, where the agent may become the patient, there are evidently two states of the person. I beat, or I am beaten; which may be distinguished by the names of the active and the passive voice, I beat myself, the reflex voice in use among the Hebrews. I cause to beat, the causative voice in use in Hebrew: and there may be modifications without end in other languages, to which in a similar manner the name of voice may be applied. Since the English requires the use of another verb to express those states of the person which in other languages are implied by the form of the verb, this distinction of voices is superfluous, and should not be admitted into the grammar of the language.

Though the English language exceeds much in simplicity, with respect to voices, either the Latin, Greek, or Hebrew languages; yet there is an addition to the radix, which is analogous to a change in the verb of other languages, going by the name of participles. Of these participles we have two; in general called participles of the present, and participles of the past; loving, loved; learning, learned. They are called participles because they partake of the nature of the verb. Loving, learning, may be applied to persons, as may loved, learned, the former implying the actual existence of the quality in the person at the time spoken of; the latter that the quality had existed in the person. He is learning English, or he has been learning English for some time past. The present tense of the English language being rather an indefinite tense, this participle is also indefinite: learning in both of the above instances shewing that the quality was existing in the man for an indefinite time. In the sentences, "he is loved," or, "he has been loved," the participle loved shews that the quality had existed in the man at a former period; "he has been loved," namely, at a distant time; "he

is loved," implies that the person at the present time is one who had love, and no intimation being given that the love of him ceased to exist, it naturally follows that we presume he will continue to be beloved. In all languages the participle has thus the circumstance of time attending the quality expressed, which may belong to a person; and hence it differs from another class of words generally called adjectives.

CHAPTER V.

On Adjectives.

Nouns we have said are words by which objects are denominated, and which distinguish them from one another without marking their quality; and hence as these objects have a vast variety of qualities by which they may be compared together, there must be words to express these qualities only, and these words are called adjectives. Thus of apples we may say, "This is a sweet apple, that a sour apple." The words street and sour are adjectives. Since the adjective is the word expressing the quality of some object, it can have no meaning by itself, and requires the presence or the implied presence of the substantive; and hence in some languages a change takes place in the adjective according to the nature of the substantive, which is very perplexing oftentimes to a learner. In English, agreeably to the simplicity of its noun, there is no such change: in most other languages the adjective varies its termination according to the gender or the number of the substantive to which it is applied.

Qualities admit of intensity or remission. One apple may be sour, but another may have more of that quality; and hence in some languages a distinction is made of comparison, and that by degrees, which sometimes are called the comparative and the superlative degrees. These degrees are expressed by an addition to the adjective, in English, as sour, sourer, scurest, or by applying the words more and most, as more delightful, most delightful; and from those different ways of expressing the same thing in the same language, it is evident that the confining of adjectives to two degrees is superfluous in the philosophy of language, and that we may expect to find some language, in which this classification does not take place. This is the case in the Hebrew language, to which of all others the English approaches nearest in simplicity. If we allowed of these degrees in general, there would be no end to the classes: if one is allowed for adjectives which denote a quality greater, there should be another for a quality less; more delightfu', less delightful, would be two classes of the comparative, and the superlative is evidently a comparative of greater intensity.

Since adjectives express qualities, and therefore cannot be used without the substantives expressed or implied, we now see why particles should frequently be taken for, or seem to pass into the class of adjectives. "A learned man is never esteemed by a man whose claim to distinction is founded on his wealth or his rank." In this sentence, learned may be considered as an adjective, because from long use the quality only is expressed without reference to time. From having learned, the man is supposed to possess a quality which distinguishes him from others, and this quality is seen when placed in opposition to others who have not had the same advantages. They are called rude, barbarous. Thus we say, "A rude man and a learned man are opposites;" where rede is acknowledged at once to be an adjective, and

language, by a multi

GRAMPUS, in ichthyology. See CYPRI

GRAN CANTORE, in music, a fine singer.

TOOL. s. A school in which es are grammatically taught. IAN. s. (grammanian, Fr. One who teaches grammar; adder). ICAL. a. (grammatical, Fr.) ranimar (Sidney). 2. Taught Dryden).

TICALLY. ad. According to lence of grammar (Watts). TICA'STER. s. (Latin.) A ant; a low grammarian (Ry

in French weights. The unit gramme, is the weight of the redth part of the metre of distaken at its maximum density. 15.444 grains. The kilogramme, at of a thousand grammes, is equal

AMONT, a town of Austrian FlanJon the river Dender. Lat. 50. 47 3. 59 E.

MONT, a town of France, in the deat of Upper Vienne. Lat. 46. 1 N. 1.30 E.

AMPIAN HILLS, mountains of Scotwhich extend through the counties of Angus, Mearns, and Aberdeen. They heir name from a single hill, the Mons pius of Tacitus, where Galgacus waited approach of Agricola, and where the battle fought so fatal to the brave Caledonians. atiquarians have not agreed upon the partilar spot.

GRAMPOUND, a small borough in Cornwall, with a market on Saturday's. Here is a considerable manufactory of gloves. Lat. Lon. 4. 49 W.

0

PLE, in ichthyology. See CAN

GRAN GUSTO, a musical expression, denoting a rich and full composition.

GRANA CNIDII. See CoccOGNIDIA. GRANA PARADISI. Cardamomum majus, melegueita maniguetta, cardamomum piperatium. The grains of paradise are the seeds of the amomum grana paradisi of Linnéus. (See AMOMUM.) They are angular reddishbrown seeds, smaller than pepper, and resembling very much the seeds of the cardamomum minus. They are extremely hot, and simila in virtue to pepper. See PIPER NIGRUM.

GRANA TINCTORIA. See KERMES.

GRANA TIGLIA. See TIGLIA GRANA, GRANADA, a province of Spain, bounded on the N. and W. by Andalusia, on the E. by Murcia, and on the S. by the Mediterranean Sea. It is about 175 miles in length, and 75 in breadth; is a mountainous country, and yet the soil is good; but it has not been well cultivated since the Moors were expelled from it in 1492. However, it produces corn, wine, oil, sugar, flax, hemp, excellent fruits, honey, wax, grapes, and mulberry-trees, which feed a great number of silk-worms. The fores"> produce gall-nuts, palm-trees, and oaks. Granada is the capital."

GRANADA, a large, handsome, and delightful city of Spain, capital of the kingdom of Granada, with an archbishop's see, and a university. It is built on four hills, and divided into four parts, in one of which is the large church, containing the tombs of Ferdinand and Isabella, who took this place from the Moors in 1492. In another is a palace of the kings of Spain, and an ancient palace of the Moorish kings, with so many rooms, that it is like a labyrinth; in the third the university stands; the fourth has nothing considerable: but all the public buildings are very magnificent. It is seated not far from the river Oro, near its confluence with the Xenil, 125 miles S.W. of Murcia, and 225 S. of Madrid. 37. 8 N. Lon. 3. 30 W.

Lat.

GRANADA, an island in the W. Indies, the principal of the Granadillas, or Granadines, situated in 61. 40 W. lon. and between 11. 55 and 12. 23 N. lat. It is the last of the Windward Caribbees, and is 30 leagues to the N.W. of Tobago. The chief port, called Lewis, is on the W. side, and is very spacious. This island is finely wooded; and the soil is suited to produce sugar, tobacco, and indigo. It was taken from the French in 1762, confirmed to the English in 1765, taken by the French in 1779, and restored to the English in 1783.

GRANADA, a town of N. America, in the province of Nicaragua, seated on lake Nicaragua, 70 miles from the South Sea. The inhabitants carry on a great trade by means of the lake which communicates with the Atlantic Ocean. Lat, 12.5 N. Lon. 27 GRANADA (New), a provi

grounds for giving them a meaning, we shall class them accordingly. Let us try then with the supposed prepositions, with, without, chez, X4745, sonder.

With means, in all cases where it is employed, addition; without, the contrary. "The King of England, with the lords and commons, can make a law; without the lords and commons, cannot make a law." Join the lords and commons to the king, and his act is good: take them away, and in law-making he becomes a cypher. There is an Anglo-Saxon verb, withan, whose imperative is with; this imperative we say remains in use in what is called the preposition with; the other parts of the verb are obsolete. Without comes from the Saxon wyrthan-utan, be out. Thus, in French avec, corresponding to our with, is from the imperative of avoir and the adjective ce, have that. Chez is called a preposition in French; but it is in reality a corruption of casa, "a house;" chez moi, 66 at my house." Xups may very reasonably be referred to xw, when sonder of the Germans, of similar import, seems to have the same relationship to sondern, the verb.

Thorough, thourough, thorow, through, or thro', is no other, says Horne Tooke, than the Gothic substantive dauro, or the Teutonic substantive thuruh, and, like them, means door, gate, passage. So that the sentence cited by him, resolved upon his principles, stands thus: "The splendid sun -join his beams-genially warmeth-passage the air, (or, the air being the passage or medium) the fertile earth." And in the same manner may we translate the preposition through in every in. stance where through is used in English, or its equivalent preposition in any language; as from the Latin and Italian word porta (in Spanish puerta and French porte), have come the Latin and Italian preposition per, the French par, and the Spanish por.

Up, upon, over, bove, above, have al!, says Horne Tooke, one common origin and signification. In the Anglo Saxon, ufa, ufera, uƒemast, are the adjectives altus, altior, altissimus. Ufa, or ufan, up; comparative ufera, ofere or ofer, over or upper; superlative ufemost, upmost or uppermost. Beufan, bufan, on bufan, bove, above. If this be a just account of the origin of these words, the sentences in his text, where upon, over, and above, occur, will run thus: "The statue stood on high a pedes tal;" "the river ran higher a sand ;" "the sun is risen on high the hills." And here we may observe, that the mere relation between standing, running, &c. and place, is rather inferred from the verb itself, than expressed by a separated word; and the reason is obvious. For if a statue stand, every one knows that it must stand on something as well as at some time. There is therefore no necessity, whatever elegance there may be in it, for employing any word to denote that relation, which is commonly believed to be signified by on; but it is necessary to insert, between the verb and pedestal, a word significant of place, that pedestal may not be mistaken, by an ignorant person, for a portion of time, or any thing else connected with the standing of the statue.

Hence we may see the absurdity of a sentence given sometimes by our judges. The man shall stand in and upon the pillory: by which they do not mean two distinct placings of the convict, though the words themselves do; but this is one only out of the thousand instances of the absurdity in the courts of law, or giving sanction to an

absurd precedent, instead of correcting every anomaly the moment it is detected.

Having thus restored meaning to our prepositions and conjunctions, we come to the last part of the general division of words in modern grammars, to the class of interjections, on which we shall make use of good authority. "The neighing of a horse, the lowing of a cow, the barking of a dog, the purring of a cat, sneezing, coughing, groaning, shrieking, and every other involuntary convulsion and oral sound, have almost as good a title to be called parts of speech as interjections. In the intercourse of language, interjections are employed only when the suddenness or vehemence of some affection or passion returns men to their natural state, and makes them for a moment forget the use of speech: or when, for some circumstance, the shortness of time will not per mit them to exercise it." It is pleasant to observe, what curious words, nay sentences, are placed by writers in the class of interjections. Thus Dr. Beattie ranks, strange, prodigious, amazing, dear me, in this class; and we may go on with this author in making a pretty list. In general the interjections are inarticulate sounds, which have nothing to do with speech, and may be significant of pleasure or pain, surprise, &c. A laugh, or a shriek, or a sneeze, will intervene in conversation: but they cannot, either of them, come into any division of words.

Upon the whole, then, we may observe of grammar, that as a science it is at present very defeetive: instead of making an intimate acquaintance with a variety of languages the basis of a general theory, most writers have employed themselves in what are called metaphysical disquisitions, and the result of their speculations has been frequently contradicted by a plain reference to matter of fact in the languages with which they were unac quainted. It seems natural to suppose, that language in its origin must have been very imperfect that signs were frequently used to give signification to men's words, just as difference of the tone of the voice makes now a difference in the meaning of the same sentence. Objects in nature were first expressed by certain sounds; qualities were observed in them which were imitated by sounds, as the hissing of the snake: words were connected together into sentences, and after s considerable length of time, words which occurred very frequently sellered abbreviation. Hence imperfect ideas were annexed to many words; the art of speech was abused; it frequently did not convey the ideas of the speaker, and was intended to deceive the hearer.

As most knowledge is communicated by language, it is evidently incumbent that the principles of it should be well understood: and hence the first requisite is to instruct the learner in the meaning of every word, and to shew how, by various processes, it came to lose some part of its original meaning, to have more or fewer ideas annexed to it. This is not a trifling knowledge in itself; when we consider that the perfect knowledge of any science will imply a knowledge of all the objects with which that language is conversant, and an accuracy and precision in the thoughts of every educated man will be the consequence of the first principles of his education. But there are many obstacles to the promotion of this science, among which we do not know a greater thau the practice of the law at present in England. In this profession there is an affectation of accuracy in the use of words; but, from the want of