following is an example of the optative so used, Æschyl. Agam. 363: ἐπ ̓ ̓Αλεξάνδρῳ τείνοντα πάλαι τόξον, ὅπως ἂν μήτε πρὸ καιροῦ μήθ ̓ ὑπὲρ ἄστρων "directing his bow against Paris this long time, to the end that his shaft might not, being fruitless (as a fruitless shaft would), either strike the ground short of the mark or soar up to the stars," where the eventual conclusion is contained in the secondary predicate ἠλίθιον. 611 The final sentences, like the prohibitive and dependent interrogative sentences with μn (above, 529, 538), are, by their nature, hypothetical clauses; as, therefore, we may say un kλéψεις as well as μὴ κλέψῃς, we may say also ὅρα ὅπως μὴ κλέψεις, and even ows μỳ xλées without a previous imperative. It is to be remarked, however, that the appearance of the relative particle ows, in the present case, indicates an ellipse or suppression of the main verb opa, whereas the dependent sentence after verbs of fear or forethought is the same in form as the direct interrogation with μn, which is as complete as the question with oỷ, and needs no supplement (see 537). 612 The infinitive and future indicative with ep' or ep' τε = ἐπὶ τοῖσδε ὥστε οι ἐπὶ τούτῳ ἐφ ̓ ᾧ τε, may express the condition or end proposed as the result of an action. The negative, when required, is always μn and not où, even with the indicative, and this, as well as the tense of the dependent verb, sufficiently shows that the sentence is not illative but final. Thus Thucyd. 1. 103: ξυνέβησαν, ἐφ ̓ ᾧ τε ἐξίασιν ἐκ τῆς Πελοποννήσου καὶ μηδέποτε ἐπιβήσονται αὐτῆς, “ they came to an agreement on the condition (with the intention, to the end) that they will depart from the Peloponnesus, and never set foot in it again." Plat. Apol. 29 c: ἀφίεμέν σε ἐπὶ τούτῳ μέντοι, ἐφ ̓ ᾧτε μηκέτι ἐν ταύτῃ τῇ ζητήσει διατρίβειν μηδὲ φιλοσοφεῖν, “we let you off on the condition of not spending your time in these speculations or cultivating philosophy." The same may be expressed by wore alone, as in Thucyd. VII. 82, § 2: ὁμολογία γίγνεται, ὥστε ὅπλα παραδοῦναι κ.τ.λ., “all agreement is made on the condition that they should give up their arms," &c. 66 613 We sometimes find that a subjunctive and optative both depend upon a verb in a determinate tense: here the subjunctive denotes the first, and the optative the second or ulterior consequence; thus in Thucyd. III. 22 : παρανῖσχον οἱ Πλαταιῆς φρυκτούς, ὅπως ἀσαφῆ τὰ σημεῖα τοῖς πολεμίοις ᾖ καὶ μὴ βοήθοιεν, make the enemies' lights unintelligible," which was the first consequence; and "to prevent the Thebans from coming to the aid of their friends," which was an ulterior consequence, resulting from the former one. to 614 If the end is not possible, or assumed to be so, as in the fourth case of conditional propositions (502, Iv.), the final clause is expressed by the indicative mood; as in Soph. Ed. T. 1386: εἰ τῆς ἀκουούσης ἔτ ̓ ἦν πηγῆς δι ̓ ὤτων φραγμός, οὐκ ἂν ἐσχόμην τὸ μὴ 'ποκλεῖσαι τοὐμὸν ἄθλιον δέμας, ἵν ̓ ἦν τυφλός τε καὶ κλύων μηδέν, "if there had been besides a means of damming up the fountain of hearing through my ears, I would not have refrained from blocking up my miserable body, in order that I might be (what I am not and cannot be) both blind and hearing nothing;" and immediately after in the same passage: τί μ ̓ οὐ λαβὼν ἔκτεινας εὐθύς, ὡς ἔδειξα μήποτε ἐμαυτὸν ἀνθρώποισιν ἔνθεν ἦν γεγώς; "why, having taken me in, didst thou not slay me at once, to the end that I might never have shown to men (as I am now showing)," or, "in which case I should never have shown, whence I was born?" And similarly with the unattainable wish (517), Plat. Crito, p. 44 D: εἰ γὰρ ὠφελον οἷοί τ ̓ εἶναι οἱ πολλοὶ τὰ μέγιστα κακὰ ἐξεργάζεσθαι, ἵν ̓ οἷοί τ ̓ ἦσαν καὶ ἀγαθὰ τὰ μέγιστα, “ would that men in general were able to perpetrate the greatest evils, in order that they might (on the condition that they might) also effectuate the greatest benefits." § IX. Causal Sentences. 615 The causal sentence contains the expression of some contemporary or antecedent fact, which explains or accounts for the main statement. Accordingly, the causal sentence may amount to a temporal sentence, expressed (a) by the participle (576, 577), or (b) by the particles signifying postquam (581). But it may also be expressed by the emphatic particle ye (c) in the combination with apa, or (d) after a relative; and (e) by the relative with arti diá, eveкa, &c. The following are examples of each class of causal | sentences. 616 (a) Participle: λέγω δὲ τοῦδ ̓ ἕνεκα, βουλόμενος δόξαι σοι ὅπερ ἐμοί (Plat. Ph do, p. 102 D), “I speak for the following reason, because I wish you to take the same view that I do." This example is instructive, as showing, in connexion with the relative usage discussed below, the distinction between the final and causal sentences. In itself éveka may introduce a final sentence (above, 607, (a)). But we have it here as a sort of antecedent to the causal participle βουλόμενος = ὅτι βούλομαι, and οὔνεκα is equivalent to τούτου ένεκα OTI. Now the condition, though expressed by the relative sentence, and therefore grammatically consequent, is logically antecedent (above, 500). And the end is really a condition of action, and as such is expressed by a relative particle. Accordingly, what is consequent when expressed in the antecedent clause, is antecedent when expressed in the consequent clause. But the cause is before the effect. Therefore what is the expression of the effect (final sentence) in the one case, is the expression of the cause (causal sentence) in the other, simply because the structure of the final sentence with un and the future or subjunctive or optative transfers the end to the future or probable, and because the structure of the causal sentence with ou and some particle or some present or past tense of the indicative presents the circumstance as a matter of fact. Obs. 1 The participles in the phrases τί βουλόμενος, τί μαθών, τί Talov (413, (ee)), and those in the absolute nominative (445), are all causal. Obs. 2 If the causal sentence involves a negation, we use ou and not μή; as οὐ ποιήσας τοῦτο, ἀγαθὺς εἶ (above, 530, (c)). Obs. 3 When the cause is stated as a matter of opinion, we prefix to the participle expressing the cause, whether it be in an absolute case, or in agreement with the subject, the relative particle os, ore, åte, åte Sý, oia, olov (compare the similar objective sentences, 590). Thus, ὡς οὐκέτ ̓ ὄντων σῶν τέκνων, φρόντιζε δή (Eurip. Med. 1311), "since your children no longer exist, form your plans accordingly." are δὴ οὖν οὐ πάνυ τι σοφὸς ὢν ὁ Ἐπιμηθεὺς ἔλαθεν αὑτὸν καταναλώσας τὰς Svváμeis eis тà aλoya (Plato, Protag. p. 321 B), i. e. "forasmuch, however, as Epimetheus was not at all (534) a wise man, he unconsciously (578) exhausted all the endowments on the brute creation." 617 (6) Particles signifying postquam: νίκη δ', ἐπείπερ ὅσπετ ̓, ἐμπέδως μένοι (Æsch. Αg. 827), “ and may victory, since it has followed us, remain with us continually." The negative used is of course où. Plat. Apol. p. 27 c: Tienui σe ὁμολογοῦντα, ἐπειδὴ οὐκ ἀποκρίνει, “I assume that you agree, since you do not answer." In Obs. When rei is causal it properly takes où, if a negative is required. The exceptions are chiefly found in the later writers, as Lucian, Hermot. 21, 9, 47; Vera Historia, II. 31; Plut. Thes. 28. Thucyd. vii. 38, fin. : ἐπεὶ δὲ μὴ ἀντανάγοιεν, ἡσύχαζον, ἐπεί is not causal, but temporal, and the sentence is frequentative, like those with omóre μÝ, Thucyd. 11. 15, § 1; ш. 68, § 1. 618 (c) The particle yáp: The particle ye="verily" combined with apa= "therefore" or "further," is written yap. This combination does not differ very much in signification from yoûvye ovv. Táp signifies "the fact is," "in fact," "as the case stands;" it may often be rendered "for," but this English particle is much less extensive in its applications. Toûv signifies "at all events," "at any rate," "if it is not so in other cases, it is so in this ;" it may also be rendered "for," but in still fewer instances than yap. Immediately following xaí, the ticle yap often introduces a sentence, with the meaning “and in fact," et profecto. In the same sense it is frequently placed after ἀλλά and ἀλλ' οὐ. The collocation οὐ γὰρ ἄν is often used to introduce a contradictory alternative, as où yàp av deûp' ikóμŋv, “I should not otherwise have come hither." With the interrogative, γάρ expresses the effect of something observed; thus, τί γὰρ σὸν čμμа σννтÉтηке; (Eurip. Med. 689), "ah! why is thine eye par bedimmed?" The following passage will show the slight difference between γάρ and ἐπεί: οὐ γὰρ ἐν ἁμετέρᾳ γνώμα λύρας ὤπασε θέσπιν ἀοιδὰν Φοῖβος, ἁγήτωρ μελέων· ἐπεὶ ἀντάχησ ̓ ἂν ὕμνον ἀρσένων γέννα (Eurip. Med. 424), i. e. "the fact is, that Phoebus did not bestow the gift of lyric poetry on our sex: since, if he had, we should have given the males song for song.” But γάρ might have been written for ἐπεί, cf. Asch. Prom. 333: πάντως γὰρ οὐ πείσεις νιν· οὐ γὰρ εὐπιθής, “ the fact is, you will altogether fail to persuade him: indeed, he is not easily persuaded.” See Porson, ad Eurip. Med. 139, 140. Γάρ is often placed first with an explanatory clause, which is sometimes followed by οὖν, as in Herod. vi. 11: ἐπὶ ξυροῦ γὰρ ἀκμῆς ἔχεται ἡμῖν τὰ πρήγματα—νῦν ὤν, κ. τ. λ. 619 (7) The particle γε: Te alone is sometimes nearly equivalent to yáp, especially when it follows μέν: before μέν or μήν, it simply conveys an asseveration. But the use of ye in causal sentences is chiefly after the relative, to which it gives the same sense as the Latin quippe qui. Thus, οἵ γε τὸν φύσαντ ̓ ἐμὲ οὕτως ἀτίμως πατρίδος ἐξωθούμενον (Soph. Ed. C. 428), i. e. “ for they did not maintain or defend me.” 620 (e) The relative with a preposition : Οἵνεκα for τούτου ἕνεκα ὅτι; ἀνθ' ὧν for ἀντὶ τούτων ὅτι (above, 407) are common forms for the expression of the causal sentence; as ἐποικτείρω δέ νιν, ὁθούνεκ' άτῃ συγκατέζευκται κακῇ (Soph. Aj. 123), "I pity him because he has become the yoke-fellow of a pernicious distraction." Obs. The connexion between the causal and the illative sentence is best shown by the transition from the use of γάρ, γοῦν, &c. in the former, to that of ἄρα, τοίγαρ, οὖν, &c. in the latter (above, 604). |