possibly be a different mode of thinking in reference to virtue, if it be formed according to the education given by these men."

545 This last construction was considered so entirely equivalent to the future, that it was used as the apodosis of éáv and the subjunctive (502, II.); thus,

ἣν νικήσωμεν, οὐ μήποτε ὑμῖν Πελοποννήσιοι ἐς τὴν χώραν ἄνευ τῆς τῶνδε ἵππου ἐσβάλωσιν (Thucyd. iv. 95), “if we shall have conquered them, there is no fear lest the Peloponnesians should invade your territory without the cavalry of these Boeotians."

CHAPTER IV.

ON CO-ORDINATE AND SUBORDINATE SENTENCES.

§ I. Recapitulation and Definitions.

546 IN the three preceding chapters we have discussed at length the subject of the proposition, and all that contributes to give it distinctness and emphasis; the different kinds of predicates; and the machinery of the protasis and apodosis. We have shown that the article, as the mark of definiteness, distinguishes the subject and epithet from the predicate; and that the relative with a definite antecedent is tantamount to an adjective or epithet. We have then explained that nouns and participles, connected with the subject by the substantive verb, and all finite tenses of verbs, are primary predicates; that cases of nouns and participles connected with the subject through a primary predicate are adverbial or secondary predicates; and that there are tertiary predicates, or anticipations of distinct propositions, in the latter case. And we have seen that the relative or relative particle, with an indefinite antecedent, marks the protasis of a conditional proposition, and that the negatives ou and un contribute to the greater distinctness of these rules. It only remains that we should now recognize these principles in their application to connected, but separate, sentences; for the previous investigation has not presumed that there has been more than one main proposition.

547 Connected sentences are either co-ordinate, or one of them is subordinate to the other. The relative, with a definite antecedent, forms an adjectival sentence dependent upon the antecedent: the relative, with an indefinite antecedent, forms an adjectival sentence subordinate to the antecedent or apodosis. If these two sentences are, as has been hitherto supposed, completed in the antecedent or apodotic clause, they are considered to make one categorical or one hypothetical proposition, as the case may be. But if, as is

the case with the disjunctive hypothetical, there are distinct alternatives, which require a conditional proposition to carry them on to an apodosis, or if, as is the case with copulative conjunctions, the two clauses stand on the same footing of categorical predication, we have not one sentence, but two co-ordinate sentences. And if, in any of the cases considered in the preceding chapters, the sentence is adverbial, or dependent upon a predicate already expressed, or if it follows a former predication as a consequence, explains it as a cause, or limits it by a concession, we call the sentence subordinate.

According to these subdivisions co-ordinate sentences are,

(a) Copulative.

(b) Disjunctive.

(c) Distributive.

And subordinate sentences are,

(a) Temporal, when they are supplementary to the tenses of the verb.

(b) Objective, when they are supplementary to the cases of

the noun.

(c) Illative or consecutive, when they follow a former predication as a consequence.

(d) Final, when they declare the end of what is predicated. (e) Causal, when they explain the cause of what is asserted. (f) Concessive, when they strengthen or limit by an admission.

§ II. Conjunctions.

548 The machinery of these co-ordinate and subordinate sentences depends very much on the proper use of those adverbs or undeclinable particles, which, from their employment in the connexion of sentences, are called conjunctions. Although these particles will be mentioned in their different classes, according to the different kinds of sentences which they contribute to form, it may be convenient to the student to enumerate them beforehand in alphabetical order.

(1) 'Aλλá, “but, but on the contrary, but still," is an adversative conjunction, generally used after negative sentences (below, 559). It is often coupled with other particles, and in this combi

nation has a special idiomatic value; as dλx' ouws, "but still;" àλλ' ovv, “but at any rate" (followed after an interval by yoûv, Plat. Prot. 327 c, or ye, Isocr. Demon. p. 10 E); aλλà μýv or ảλλà ἀλλὰ ἀλλὰ μévτo, "but surely" (followed after an interval of a word by ye, μέντοι, Plat. Gorg. 449 E, Resp. 331 E); ảλλá тoi, “but yet;" ảλλà dr, “but now;” ἀλλὰ γάρ, " but in point of fact;” ἀλλ ̓ οὐ μήν οι àλ' où μévтoι followed by ye, "but at any rate not."

(2) "AXλws, "otherwise," has some special idiomatic usages. Thus the combination aλλws Te Kai, "both otherwise and," means ἄλλως τε καί, "especially," and it is sometimes strengthened by πávτws, as in Esch. Pers. 685. "AXλws also means "otherwise than rightly," i.e." i. e. "uselessly, unprofitably;" as Eurip. Heracl. 704: aλλws éμćxovv, "I laboured in vain;" Plat. Theat. p. 176 D: yês äλλws ǎxon, “nothing but burdens of the earth;" Thucyd. VIII. 78: åλλws čvoμa kaì ovк epyov, "nothing but words, and no reality." Also in the phrase Tv aλws, i. e. ódóv, Plat. Theat. 172 E: oi ἀγῶνες οὐδέποτε τὴν ἄλλως, ἀλλ ̓ ἀεὶ τὴν περὶ αὑτοῦ, “the contests are never at random, but always about oneself."

(3) "Apa, "at the same time." It is used to strengthen the participle in temporal sentences (below, 576), and often indicates emphatically an additional circumstance, as Thucyd. I. 110: TOÛTOV διὰ μέγεθός τε τοῦ ὅλους οὐκ ἐδύναντο ἑλεῖν καὶ ἅμα μαχιμώτατοί εἰσι τῶν Αἰγυπτίων οἱ ἕλειοι, “ they could not get at him on account of the extent of the marshes, and besides that, the men of the marshes are the most warlike of the Egyptians."

(4) "Apa (= åv-pa), literally "still farther, beyond that," is generally a particle of inference, signifying "therefore." It is used idiomatically with past tenses to denote that "after all," "as it now seems," the state of the case is widely different from our antecedent notion of it. Hence it amounts sometimes to an expression of regret or disappointment. Thus Eurip. Troad. 414: ovdév TU KрEίσow TŵV TÒ μndèv ηv äpa, "it was after all, as it seems, no better than a cipher." Soph. Aj. 1025: úp' où þovéws ap' ¿§éTVEVσas, "by which, as your slayer, you have, as it seems (to my sorrow) expired." In somewhat the same sense it is used with the conditional particle, as Plat. Resp. 433 a: åkove el ti åpa Xéyw, "hear if, after all, I really speak to the point."

(5) 'Aráp, "but," like the Homeric avtáp, is generally poetic; but it is used by Xenophon as a particle of continuation rather

than opposition; thus Anab. IV. 6, § 14: ảτàρ tí ẻyw πepì kλowns ovμßároμai, "but (to continue) what do I suggest respecting the συμβάλλομαι, theft?"

(6) "ATE, "as," is used with the participle in causal sentences (below, 616, Obs, 3).

(7) Av, "again," "on the other hand," also in the longer form αὖθις, and with emphatic repetitions combined with πάλιν, as in πάλιν αὖ, more rarely αὖ πάλιν, also αὖθις αὖ, αὖθις πάλιν, πάλιν αὖθις, αὖ πάλιν αὖθις, αὖθις αὖ πάλιν, like our “again and again,” "over again." Thus Plat. Protag. 355 B: avois av λéyete, “say it over again."

(8) Avτíka, "immediately," "forthwith," is used sometimes, especially by Plato, in the sense "for example's sake," as Resp. p. 340 D: ἐπεὶ αὐτίκα ἰατρὸν καλεῖς σὺ τὸν ἐξαμαρτάνοντα περὶ TOÙS KÁμVOVTAS; "since, for example's sake, do you call him a physician who blunders about the sick?”

(9) Táp (from ye and apa, or perhaps from the older forms yá and þá), “for,” “in point of fact," is regularly used in causal sentences (below, 618).

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(10) Te, "yes,' certainly," "at least," is a particle of concession and affirmation. It is often compounded with ovv in the form yoûv, "at all events," and is used in combination with many other particles, as el ye, “since," ye μnv, "certainly," &c. With the relative ős it is used in causal sentences, like the Latin quippe qui (below, 619).

(11) Aé, "in the second place," "on the other hand," "too, is regularly used in distributive sentences (below, 559 sqq.).

(12) Ań, "now," "up to now," is sometimes a particle of Δή, time, like non, and sometimes used to emphasize some other word, especially a superlative, as μéyɩotos dń, "by far the greatest." Kal Sý means "just at the time specified;" as Soph. Aj. 48: kaì dŋ'ñì δισσαῖς ἦν στρατηγίσιν πύλαις, “he had just got to the gates of the two generals." Hence it is used in suppositions (below, 621). We have also the combination Sýrov, "of course;" dris, "some one or other," &c. And dý is sometimes used in an ironical sense, like our old-fashioned "forsooth;" as Xen. Hell. v. 4, § 6: TàS ÉTAιpídas Sn, "the courtesans forsooth, as he called them." In this sense we have also δῆθεν.