Whether as epithet or as predicate, the adjective properly agrees with its substantive in gender, number and case; but it is sometimes construed according to the sense rather than the form of the expression. Thus we find (Thucyd. 111. 79): ènì μèv tηv πόλιν ἐπέπλεον, ἐν πολλῇ ταραχῇ καὶ φόβῳ ὄντας, because the inhabitants are presumed in the word rós. Similarly in Esch. Agam. 189, we have ẞλaßévra in the neut. pl. to agree with Xayivav γένναν, because this implies λαγὼ καὶ τὰ τέκνα αὐτῆς, and in the same play (545) τιθέντες immediately follows δρόσοι, because it refers also to ὄμβροι implied in ἐξ οὐρανοῦ as opposed to ἀπὸ γῆς.

(a) The Adjective as Epithet.

(aa) The epithet may either appear without the article, as XEUKÒS IπTOS, "a white horse," or it may stand between the article and the noun, as ó λeuкòs iππоs, "the white horse," or it may follow the noun with an article to itself, as ó ππOS Ó XEUKÓS, "the horse the white one."

(bb) Two or more epithets may be joined to the same substantive without any copulative conjunction; as Hom. Il. xvi. 801, 2: δολιχόσκιον ἔγχος, βριθύ, μέγα, στιβαρόν, κεκορυθμένον. Τπο epithets to the same noun are very common, especially in poetry; as Il. XVI. 428: αἰγυπιοι γαμψώνυχες αγκυλοχεῖλαι. #sch. Eumen. 343: αἱμοσταγές, ἀξιόμισον ἔθνος. Ibid. 873: τῶν ἀρειφάτων πρεπτῶν ἀγώνων. Agam. 237: τριτόσπονδον εὔποτμον Taiâva. Pind. Ol. Ix. 44: ópódaμov Xílivov yóvov. Soph. Antig. 1: ὦ κοινὸν αὐτάδελφον Ισμήνης κάρα. And Sophocles has not hesitated to introduce three epithets in addition to two qualifying genitives in Cd. Col. 1662: τὸ νερτέρων εὔνουν διαστὴν γῆς ἀλύπηтоν Báoроv, which means "the painless threshold of the gods below which mercifully made an opening in the earth to receive him." In Æsch. Agam. 145, we have three, and immediately after, 149, 150, six epithets to one noun.

τε

βάθρον,

(cc) On the other hand the conjunction is inserted, although our idiom does not admit it, when woλus is prefixed to some other adjective denoting goodness or badness; as Herod. VIII. 61: Toλλá Te Kai Kakà ěλeyev, "he uttered many reproaches." Xen. Mem. II. 9, § 6: συνειδὼς αὑτῷ πολλὰ καὶ πονηρά, “ being conscious to himself of many wicked actions." Plat. Resp. p. 615 d: toλλá te Kaì àvóσιa eipyaoμévos, “having done many impious deeds." But

in a particular emphasis the conjunction may be omitted, as in the well-known epitaph (Anthol. Pal. VII. 348): πολλὰ πιών, καὶ πολλὰ φαγών, καὶ πολλὰ κάκ ̓ εἰπών.

(dd) In the poets an epithet sometimes does not agree grammatically with the noun to which it refers, but with some other word in close connexion with it. Thus in Pind. Pyth. VI. 5: Πυθι όνικος ἑτοῖμος ὕμνων θησαυρός means ἑτοιμος θησαυρὸς Πυθιονίκων ὕμνων, “ a treasure or store of hymns for Pythian victories, ready to be paid out.” Soph. Antig. 780: τόδε νεῖκος ἀνδρῶν ξύναιμον means τόδε νεῖκος ξυναίμων ἀνδρῶν, " this quarrel of near relations.” Eurip. Orest. 991: τὸ πτανὸν δίωγμα πώλων means τὸ τῶν πτανῶν πώλων δίωγμα οι οἱ πτανοὶ πῶλοι οἱ ἐδίωκον. Soph. Trach. 508: ὑψικέρω τετράορον φάσμα ταύρου means φάσμα ὑψικέρωτος τετραόρου ταύρου. Id. Agam. 1123: πολιᾶς πόντου θινός means πολιοῦ πόντου θινός. Eurip. Phæn. 1370: λευκοπηχεῖς κτύποι χειρῶν means κτύποι λευκοπηχῶν χειρῶν, &c. And this idiom is carried so far that even a predicative participle agrees with the nominative rather than with the dependent genitive to which it necessarily refers; as in Soph. d. Τyr. 1375: ἡ τέκνων ὄψις, βλαστοῦσ ̓ ὅπως ἔβλαστεν for βλαστόντων.

(ee) By a further development, an epithet compounded with a- privativum may be followed by a genitive of relation, with which a part of it is connected as governing noun or attribute; thus in Hom. Od. IV. 783: ἄσιτος ἄπαστος ἐδητύος ἠδὲ ποτῆτος, “ without food or tasting with regard to eating and drinking.” Soph. cd. Tyr. 191 : Αρης ἄχαλκος ἀσπίδων, “ Mars un-brazen with regard to shields " (i. c. without the bronze of shields, or shields of bronze, his usual paraphernalia), is the designation of a destructive pestilence. Id. Aj. 314: ἀψόφητος ὀξέων κωκυμάτων, “without the noise of shrill wailings.'

(ff) Conversely, the governed genitive may be contained in the epithet together with the real epithet of the main noun, as in Asch. Choeph. 21: ὀξύχειρ κτύπος = ὀξὺς κτύπος χειρῶν. Or the compound epithet may involve successive genitives in regimen, as Æsch. Suppl. 30: ἑσμὸς ἀρσενοπληθής = ἑσμὸς πλήθους ἀρσένων. Or even when the whole phrase is itself in regimen, as Soph. Ant. 1009: ἀνδροφθόρου αἵματος λίπος = λίπος αἵματος φθορᾶς ἀνδρός.

(99) An epithet is used to show that the substantive is not used in its proper sense, as Eurip. Phæn. 221: ἀκάρπιστα πεδία,

“unfruitful plains," i.e. the sea; Ibid. 790: кŵμos ȧvavλÓTATOS, “a revel most entirely without flutes" (the flute being the regular accompaniment of the comus), i.e. war; Orest. 319: áßáкXEVTOS Oíacos, "a company not of Bacchanals" (the Oíacos being properly a troop of Bacchic revellers), i. e. the Furies; Æsch. Agam. 82: čvap ýμepópavτov," a dream appearing in day light,” i.e. a feeble old man; ρόφαντον, Ibid. 1231: Simovs λéawa, "a biped lioness," i. e. a cruel woman; δίπους λέαινα, Sept. 81: Kóvis åvavdos ǎyyeλos, "dust, a voiceless messenger;" Suppl. 872: Sínovs opis, "a biped serpent," i. e. a man; Eumen. 172: πтηvòs õpis, "a winged serpent," i. e. an arrow; Ibid. 236: πτηνὸς ὄφις, μηVVτÒρ ćÐEYKTOя, "a voiceless informant," i. e. blood; Choëph. 486: Tédaι áɣáλKEUTO, "fetters not made of bronze," i. e. the robe in which Agamemnon was enveloped.

(b) The Adjective as Subject.

We have already seen that the substantive is regularly omitted in certain cases, so that an adjective remains as the only expression of the subject (399, (5)), and that all predicable words may become subjects (400, (a)). Besides these general exemplifications of the principle, there are certain adjectives which are regularly used as substantives. These are

(a) In the masculine, adjectives denoting a personal relation, with which we might supply ἄνθρωπος, ἄνθρωποι (399, (γ)), as φίλος, pixos, "a friend;" ex@pós, "a foe;" Toλéμios, "a national enemy;" évos, "a foreigner," especially one with whom we are on friendly terms; ἐναντίος, “ an opponent;” θνητός, βροτός, “ a mortal” “a or specially “ a human being;” μπρος, “ a fool;” ἔμφρονες, ἄφρονες, "the wise," "the foolish;" ayabol, kakoí, "the good," "the bad," or "the noble," "the ignoble," &c. The neuter very rarely denotes an individual, as тò äppev, "the man;" Tò Oĥλv,

(B) In the neuter, and almost always with the article,

"the

(aa) Adjectives indicating space or locality, as péσov, “the middle;" σxatov, "the extreme;" óμaλóv, “the level;" and with prepositions, eis ev, "to one place or spot;" ap' vηλotéρov, “from higher ground;" èπì πoλú, “to a considerable extent;” èïì ßpaxú, " for a short distance;” τὰ ἐπιθαλάσσια, τὰ παράλια, " the coast ;" τὰ καρτερά, “the strong places;” τὰ ἄκρα, “ the heights;” τὰ στενά, σTevά, "the narrow passes;" opewá, "woodland," &c.

66

(bb) Adjectives indicating time, as ènì rolu, "for a long time;" πì λeîσTov, "for the longest time;" és átdiov, "for everlasting;" é éwowoû, "from the dawn," &c. ἐξ ἑωθινοῦ,

(cc) Adjectives equivalent to collective nouns, as тò äppev, "the males;" Tò Øĥλʊ, “the females;" Tò 'Exλnvikóv, “the Greeks in general, the Hellenic world, Greekdom;" iπTIKÓν, "cavalry;" OTTIKOV, "men-at-arms;" vaUTIKÓv, "sailors" or "a fleet;" Tò ὁπλιτικόν, ναυτικόν, νέον, “ the young men ;” τὸ κράτιστον τοῦ στρατεύματος, “ the élite of the army."

(dd) Adjectives equivalent to nouns denoting qualities or states, as τὸ βασιλικόν, “ royalty;” τὸ φιλοχρήματον, “avarice;” τὸ dopaλés, “a state of security;" rò guyyevés, “relationship;" Tò ξηρόν, τὸ ὑγρόν, “ dryness,” moistness;” but τὰ ξηρά, τὰ ὑγρά,

"dry, moist substances," &c.

Obs. As denoting particular objects the neuter adjective is rarely used as a substantive, but it seems that yepapá means presents or gifts (yepa) in two passages of Eschylus (Suppl. 672, Agam. 722), and it is clear that λυτήριον is equivalent to λύτρον in Pind. Pyth. v. 99 : τὸ καλλίVIKOV AUTÝρLOV daтavâv (see New Cratylus, §§ 297, 305).

§ IX. The Comparative Degree.

415 By its nature an adjective in the comparative degree is more likely to appear as a predicate than as an epithet. But as this form is used in both applications of the adjective, and as the construction is the same in both, it will be as well to consider it here once for all.

Whether as epithet or predicate the comparative adjective must express one of two things; (a) the degree in which the quality is possessed by the subject; (b) the relation between the quality possessed by one subject and that possessed by another. If in either of these applications a standard of comparison is introduced, it may be represented by a genitive case signifying, as we shall see, "in relation to, with regard to," the object mentioned, as ouтos σopaTepós éσtiv ékeívov, "this man is wiser, stands in a higher grade of wisdom, in relation to that man;" but we say in English, "this man is wiser than the other," where "than" is another and later mode of spelling "then," so that the phrase means "this man is wiser, then (comes) the other." Or the standard of comparison is

introduced by the conjunction (epic né, néπep), signifying "as," "in the manner or degree in which," like the Latin quam and the German als (a mutilated form of al-sô); thus, åpeíoσiv ǹéπep vμîv ἀνδράσιν ὡμίλησα, " I have kept company with men brave in a higher degree, as compared with the manner or degree in which you are brave," that is, as we say, "braver than you." The different applications of these two modes of expressing the standard of comparison will be seen in the following illustrations of the two significations of the comparative degree.

(a) The Comparative as referring to a single Subject.

(aa) When we wish to indicate merely the degree in which the quality is possessed by the subject, we may use the comparative degree by itself, as ἀγροικότερόν (γελοιότερόν) ἐστιν εἰπεῖν, “ it is somewhat, in a certain degree, rude or ridiculous to say " (Plato, Apol. p. 30 E, 32 D; Gorg. 509 A): μŵv voтépai táρeoμev (Aristoph. Lys. 69); "we have not come too late, have we?" aσσov iтe (Hom. Il. 1. 335), “approach nearer;" μeîs éxaσtépw oikéoμev (Herod. VI. 108), "we live too far off;" vewτeρćv Tɩ, "something too new, something violent," whence vewτepiw, “I adopt harsh measures;" and this is very common in such phrases as ἄμεινον, βέλτιον, λῷον, κάλλιον, χεῖρον, κάκιόν ἐστι, and the like.

(bb) The same force of the comparative may be expressed by a compound with ὑπο-, as ὑπόμαργος, " somewhat crazy;” ὑπολευκόχρως, “ whitish,” “ pale;” ὑπόφαιος, “ somewhat gray;” ὑπόXλapos, "greenish yellow;" but even these are used in the comparative degree, as Herod. III. 145: ἦν οἱ ἀδελφεὸς ὑπομαργότερος, "he had a brother rather mad than otherwise."

(cc) When two qualities are contrasted in the same subject, they may both be expressed by the comparative degree, as Hom. Od. I. 164: πάντες κ ̓ ἀρησαίατ ̓ ἐλαφρότεροι πόδας εἶναι ἢ ἀφνειόTeρоι Xpvσoîo, "all would pray to be swift of foot in a high degree, as compared with being in a high degree rich in gold.” Herod. III. 65: ἐποίησα ταχύτερα ἢ σοφώτερα, " I have acted in the manner distinguished by haste, as compared with the manner distinguished by wisdom," i. e. with more haste than wisdom. Plat. Resp. III. p. 410 D: μαλακώτεροι γίγνονται ἢ ὡς κάλλιον αὐτοῖς, “ they prove themselves effeminate in a higher degree, as compared with the