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namely, by the addition of pronominal elements, so that a new crude form becomes the vehicle of the inflexions. There is naturally more variety in the secondary formations of nouns than in those of verbs. For while the person-endings of the verb have anticipated one prominent distinctive use of all three pronominal elements, the cases of the noun are, as we have seen, connected only with a special development of the second and third elements. Hence, in the derivative forms we find the converse. In the nouns all three pronominal elements are used, in their distinctive senses, and in combination with one another, to form nominal derivatives, while the verbal derivatives are limited to that special development of the second and third elements, which we find in the cases of the noun.

(a) Derivative Nouns.

356 In the formation of nominal derivatives we observe that the first pronominal element expresses that the thing proceeds from, or immediately belongs to, the subject; the second, that it has a relation to the subject; the third, that it is a mere object, or something removed from the proximity of the subject.

a. The first pronominal element, in the derivative forms of nouns, appears generally as μ-; rarely, if ever, as π-.

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b. The second very frequently as -, L-, Y-, K-, TI-, TU-, v-, 0-,

C. The third only as т- or v-.

d. The forms p-, -, as degenerations from the other dental liquid v, representing the third element, play a prominent part in the formation of nouns.

e. The first element is combined with the third, under the forms μ-v, μ-T; with the second, after the third, in μ-v-ɩ-, μ-v-к-.

f. The second element is combined with the first under the form σ-μ-; with the third as F-T-, σ-V-, I-V-, TI-T-, d-v-; with p-,

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g. The third element is combined with λ, p, in 7-λ-, T-p, and doubled in -7-T-, -V-T.

357 The following are examples of these formations:

α. τιμή,

a. T-un, "an honouring" or "appreciation" proceeding from the subject; vn-un, "a calling to mind;" Tór-pos, "a falling."

Often with σ,

prefixed (above, 91), as deo-uós, "a binding;" Oeo-uós, "a placing." The force of this ending is well shown by θεσμός, a comparison between the Latin primus, "the first of a series beginning with the subject," and the Greek Tρ-TOS, "the last of a series ending with the subject:" between al-mus, "the nourisher,” and alu-m-nus, "the nourished."

b.

6. μίμησις, “ an imitation;” φιλία, " a friendliness;” ἱππόTNS = iπTI-KÓS = inπe-ús, "equestrian" or "having relation to a της ἱππι-κός ἱππεύς, horse;" éon-Tús, "an eating;" poipi-dios, "of or belonging to fate;" Enμó-olos, "popular," and the like, are all relative or qualitative words, and recall the sense which properly attaches to the genitive case. Sometimes - appears for a, as in eux-n, "a praying."

C.

c. γραπτός, “ written ;” χριστός, " anointed ;” δεινός, “ dreaded;" σeμ-vós or σETT-TÓS, "revered," are all objective words, exσεμνός σεπτός, pressing the results of an action.

d. Words in -λos and -pos generally correspond to those in -νος; comp. δειλός with δεινός, and both with dirus; μεγάλος with mag-nus ; λυγερός with στυγνός; ἐχθ-ρός with [ε]ξένος, &c.

e. A combination of (a) and (c) expresses the action, as proceeding from the subject, in connexion with its results (above, 79): thus, from πράγ-γα-μι we might have πραγ-μός, “ a doing,” and πραγ-μήν, “ a doer” (α), and we have really πολυπράγμων, “ he who does much,” πρᾶξις = πρᾶκ-σις, “ a relative doing” (β), πрâɣо-я=πрâуο-т and πρак-тós, "done" (c), and by a combination of (a) and (c) we have πрây-μа-т-= πраɣ-μеvт- (107) and πeπραγ-μένον, πрay-μé-vov, "done as the result of doing." This last combination may take in addition (b), as in aρ-μo-ví-a, áp-μo-v-Kós, in which case the quality connected with or produced by the result is expressed, as well as the result itself: for we have ȧp-μós="a joining;" ap-μo-ví-a= "the quality produced by such a joining;" áp-μo-vi-κós" the sort of person who possesses such a quality." άρ-μο-νι-κός

f. When (b) is combined with (a), the relative word becomes subjective, as ἅλωσις, " a taking;” ἁλώ-σι-μος παιάν, “ a song of triumph on taking." When we have (b+c), the relative word becomes objective, as pos=pá-For, "that which is of the quality of light;" kaλλo-σú-vn, "that which is of the quality of beauty" (nearly equal to κάλλος = κάλλο-τ); ἀληθινός, “ made up of that

which is true;” ἰσό-τη-ς=ἰσό-τα-τ-ς, " equality;” ἀχθη-δών, " annoyance," i. e. that which is of the quality of grief or pain. When T- is combined with p-, we have only a qualitative extension of the meaning of τι-; compare οἰκή-τωρ with οἰκητής; δοτήρ, δώτειρα with δότης, &c.

ρ

g. We have the combination 7+p (sometimes Op) in the comparatives of adjectives, and in words signifying instrumentality, or a thing carried farther in a certain direction; 7+λ is more rarely used in the same sense; compare σopo-repos, "farther in wisdom;" βάραθρον, " farther in depth ;" ἐχέτλη, “ the handle at the end of the plough." The combination 7+7 marks the superlative, as σοφώτατος, "first of a series of wise men." The combination V-T, which is the third person-ending of the plural verb, is of constant use in the formation of active participles; it implies collection: compare πâs=πâ-νт-s with qua-ntus, and the names of towns, such as Τάρας = Τάρα-ντs with Tarentum.

(B) Derivative Verbs.

358 In order to see what verbs are derivative and what are primitive, it is necessary to classify all verbs according to the genesis or origination of their crude forms. The conjugations given above (299) are arranged according to the characteristic of the root, and are designed for the convenience of the learner. The true classification, however, depends upon the contrivances adopted for the formation of a present tense from the root as exhibited in the second aorist.

359 I. Primitive verbs, or those which are not formed from existing nouns or verbs.

(a) The simplest and oldest verbs are those which are formed from a monosyllabic root, which is prefixed to the person-endings (a) without any change, as ei-μí=èo-μí; (b) with guna or some ectasis involving perhaps a vowel of connexion, as on-μí=pa-ya-μí; (c) with reduplication without guna, as πi-πтw (root TET-); (d) with reduplication and guna, as ri-On-μi = тi-Оé-ya-μi; (e) with an hyperthesis of guna (above, 145), as στείβω for στίβ-γω, φεύγω for púyyw, Lat. fugio.

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Obs. The vocalization shows that even such verbs as Aéyw and σrρéдw must have been formed by some strengthening insertion or affix (above, 20).

(b) Another class adds v to the root, as in Téμ-v-w. This is sometimes accompanied by an euphonious ectasis of a labial or guttural in the root, as in λa-u-ẞá-vw, tv-y-xá-vw, which is perhaps due to hyperthesis (above, 110). The same element sometimes appears as 7, after labials and gutturals: thus we have TÚπ-T-∞, root τυπ-, κρύπτω, root κρυβ-, τίκ-τ-ω, root τεκ-. In some verbs we have a combination of v and F in this strengthening adjunct: this appears as νη = ν-ια in δάμ-νη-μι, πίλ-νη-μι, &c.; as vu in ζεύγο vv-μ, where there is also a guna or expression of ta, indicated in such cases as oẞé-v-vvμ by a reduplication of the v. The vowel in vi-, and even in vv-, may precede the liquid which it articulates. Thus we have φαίνω, ἐλαύνω from the roots φα- and έλα

νυμι,

360 II. Secondary verbs, or those which are obviously derived from existing nouns or verbs.

The pronominal affixes used to form derivatives of this class are the same in kind with those used to strengthen the present in the other case, and most of them are found in the derivative nouns.

The terminations most in use for this purpose are the following: -άω, -έω, -όω, -άζω (= αδ-γω), -ίζω (= ιδ-τω), -ύζω (= υδ-ηω), -ίσκω, -ύσκω, -εύω, -αίνω, -ύνω ; as τι-μά-ω from τιμή, φιλ-έ-w from φίλος, μισθ-ό-ω from μίσθος, σκευ-ά-ζω from σκευή, νομ-ί-ζω from νόμος οι νέμ-ω, γαμ-ί-σκω from γαμ-έω, μεθύ-σκω from μεθύω, παιδεύω from παῖς (παῖδ-ς), σημ-αί-νω from σῆμα, εὐθ-ύ-νω from εὐθύς: the termination -é-0w, -ú-0w seems to be appropriated to derivatives from simple verbs; for instance, pλey-é-0w from pλéyw, p0iv-v-Ow from 40vw, where it will be observed that the e represents, which often follows y, and v belongs to the vv of the primitive form. The termination --σK-, -v-σк- is inserted between the root and the strengthening pronominal adjunct in the verbs ỏpλ-10к-á-vw, ἀλ-υ-σκ-ά-νω, &c.

Obs. 1 There are some verbs in -áw, -éw, which must not be classed among these secondary derivatives. Such are Spá-w= SpáƑw, which must be connected with δραπ- θεραπ- : cf. δραπέτης: καλέω = καλέξω, connected with κλέος, κλύω, &c.

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On the other hand, a derivative affix is not unfrequently lost by assimilation, and the verb becomes a simple barytone; thus we have πράσσω for πράγ-γω from πράγ-ος (79, 103), ἀγγέλλω for ἀγγέλω from ἄγγελος, ποικίλλω for ποίκιλ-γω from ποικίλος, καθαίρω for καθάρ yw from καθαρός, πυρέσσω for πυρέτ-γω from πυρετός, &c.

§ IV. (B) Classification of Derivatives.

(a) Derived Substantives.

361 Substantives are derived (1) from verbs, (2) from adjectives, (3) from other substantives.

(1) Substantives derived from Verbs.

(a) Substantives denoting the agent or person who carries out the action of the verb.

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(aa) The most common termination is -Tns (gen. -Tov), fem. -τρις (gen. -τριδος), -τρος (gen. -τρου), -τωρ (gen. -τορος) or -τρια (gen. -Tpias) or -Tis (gen. -Tidos); less common is -Tnp (gen. -τnpos), fem. -Teɩpa (gen. -Teipas). These nouns are formed in the same way as the verbals in -Tós and -Téos, and there is no doubt that the terminations are connected. Thus we have avλnτns, "a flute αὐλήτης, “a player” (from αὐλεῖν), fem. αὐλητρίς and αὐλήτρια; κελευστής, “α commander" (from Keλevw); μalnτns, "a disciple" (from μa-vθάνειν), fem. μαθητρίς; ὀρχήστης and poet. ὀρχηστήρ, “ a dancer (from ὀρχεῖσθαι), fem. ὀρχήστρια; δράστης οι δρηστήρ, " a labourer "a (from δρᾶν), fem. δρῆστις; προδότης, " a traitor” (from προδιδόναι), fem. προδότες; ἰατρός, “ a healer” (from ἰᾶσθαι); σωτήρ, “ a saviour” (from σαοῦν, σώζειν), fem. σώτειρα; εὐναστήρ, εὐνητήρ οι εὐνατήρ, “ a husband” (from εὐμῖν, εὐνάζειν), fem. εὐνάστειρα, εὐνάτειρα, εὐνήτειρα, εὐνήτρια; ῥήτωρ, " an orator” (from the root of εἴ-ρη-κα); and secondary derivatives like ἀπάτωρ, ἀμήτωρ from πατήρ, μήτηρ. Words formed with the ending της have sometimes, but rarely, a passive sense; thus yevérns means a son" (Soph. Ed. T. 470); ȧríτns, “dishonoured" (Esch. Agam. 72); Kiσσodéτηs, "bound with ivy" (Pind. Fr. 45, 9). κισσοδέτης,

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Obs. With regard to the accentuation of these derivatives, it is to be observed (a) that the nouns in -rns are paroxytone when they are proper names, when they are dissyllable, or when, being polysyllable, they have a short penultima ; thus we find Ορέστης, ψεύστης, δεσπότης. But if the penultima is long, the word is oxytone; thus we find ours, δικαστής. Exceptions : κρίτης (but in compounds with any other word than a preposition it draws back its accent, as in ὀνειροκρίτης), εὑρετής, δυνάστης; and in Attic Greek derivatives from liquid verbs, as ψαλτής, TOLKITYS, &c. (b) The nouns in Tηp and -Tpis are oxytones. (c) Those in τρια and -τειρα are proparoxytones.

(bb) The terminations -ns (gen. -ov) from verbs in -éw, -as (gen. -ov) from verbs in -áw, and -os (gen. -ov) from consonantal

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