of η ; e. g. ἀκροασομαι, &c. The following verbs are to be observed as special exceptions, for they retain the short a in the derivative tenses: γελάω, δαμάω, ἐλάω, ἔραμαι, θλάω, ἱλάω, ἱμάω, κεράω, κλάω, κρεμάω (in the transitive sense), πάομαι, σπάω and χαλάω,—thus : fut. γελάσω, δαμάσω, ἐλάσω, &c.

(b) of verbs in -éw, the following retain in the derivative tenses the e unchanged: αιδέομαι, ἀκέομαι, ἀλέω, ἀρκέω, ἐμέω, ζέω, καλέω, ξέω, τελέω, τρέω,—thus : fut. αἰδέσομαι, ἀκέσομαι, &c.

Other verbs in -éw take the long vowel in some tenses, while in others they retain the short one. These are as follow :

αἰνέω, “I praise,” fut. γνέθην, perf. pass. ᾔνημαι.

αινέσω, 1 aor. ἤνεσα, perf. νεκα, 1 aor. pass. The epic forms are αἰνήσω, &c.

αἱρέω, “I take,” retains the short vowel only in the 1 aor. pass. ᾑρέθην.

δέω, “I bind,” has in the fut. δήσω, 1 aor. ἔδησα, but in the perf. δέδεκα, perf. pass. δέδεμαι, 1 aor. pass. ἐδέθην.

ποθέω, “ I desire,” interchanges, according to the difference of dialects, between ποθέσω and ποθήσω, &c. In the perfect only it always takes η, πεπόθηκα, πεπόθημαι.

Six verbs in -éw, all implying a continuous motion, change the characteristic into ev in the fut., namely, θέω, “I run;” νέω, “ I swim;” πλέω, “ I sail;” πνέω, “I blow;” ῥέω, “I flow;” χέω, “I pour;” fut. θευσοῦμαι, πλεύσω, ρεύσω, δε

(c) In verbs in -ów, the short vowel is retained in the derivative tenses only by ἀρόω, “I plough,” fut. ἀρόσω, and ομόω (obsolete radical form to ὄμνυμι), aor. ὤμοσα.

(3) The subjunct. and optat. perf. pass. appear only in certain trisyllabic perfects, particularly of those which have a present signification, such as κέκτημαι, “ I possess,” from κτάομαι; μέμνημαι, “I remem ber,” from μιμνήσκω ; κέκλημαι, “I am called,” from καλέω ; e. g.

κέκτημαι, subj. κέκτωμαι, opt. κεκτήμην and κεκτώμην, -ᾠο, το, &c. μέμνημαι, subj. μέμνωμαι, opt. μεμνήμην and μεμνώμην, -ο, -ᾧτο, &c.

(4) On the application and neglect of contraction, the following are the general rules. The Attic writers use exclusively the contracted form. But in verbs in -έω, whose root is monosyllabic, contraction does not take place ife is followed by one of the dull sounds o, w, oi, ou, or by an n; e. g. πλέω, πλεῖς, πλεῖ, πλεῖτον, but πλέομεν, πλέουσι, πλέωσι, πλέῃ, &c. An exception is formed by δέω, “ I bind,” which is contracted even when a dull sound follows ; e. g. δέομαι, δοῦμαι. On the

contrary, the Ionians adopt contraction in verbs in -áw and -ów, but not in those in -éw. On the peculiarities of the remaining dialects, in respect to contraction, see below, (6).

(5) Some verbs in -áw take n instead of a in contraction. This invariably happens in Cáw, "I live;" weάw, "I am hungry;" Sufáw, "I am thirsty;" xpάoμaι, "I use ;" e. g.

ζάω, ζῆς, ζῇ, dual ζῆτον, ζῆτον, plur. ζῶμεν, ζῆτε, ζῶσι, inf. ζῆν, imperf. ¿wv, člns, ë¿n, &c.

In κváw, "I rub;" σpáw, "I smear;" yaw, "I scour;" this, although not the only one in use, is the common mode of contraction.

(6) The following are the peculiarities of the different dialects in the use of contracted verbs:

(a) The epic dialect adopts or neglects contraction according to the exigencies of the metre. The following observations apply to the different classes of contracted verbs.

(a) In verbs in -éw, if e is followed by w, w, ot and ov, contraction does not take place; but if another sound follows, it is partly omitted, partly applied, and eo is then contracted into ev. Frequently also e is lengthened into e, with the omission of contraction; e. g. teλeíey, ¿teλείετο (from τελέω) πλείειν and θείειν for πλέειν and θέειν. In epic Greek the termination -eau of the 2 pers. sing. pres. pass. is not contracted into y, but either remains in the resolved form, e. g. piλéeai, or the e of the root is contracted with thee of the termination into e, e. g. μvbeîai for μvécaɩ, or one e is rejected, e. g. μvoća. In the 2 pers. sing. imperf. and imperat. either co is contracted into ev, or, as most frequently happens, an e is rejected ; e.g. αιτέο, φοβέο for αἰτέεο, φοβέεο.

(B) Verbs in -ów are either contracted in the usual manner, or they neglect contraction, and change the characteristic vowel o into w; e. g. ὑπνώοντας (from ὑπνόω), &c. Also some forms in these verbs, as in verbs in -áw (see under (y)), exhibit a lengthening of the sound, which presupposes a contracted form, and generally takes place with ow and oợ; e. g.

ἀρόωσι for ἀρόουσι, ἀροῦσι,

δηϊόωντο for δηϊόοντο, δηϊοῦντο,

δηϊόψεν for δηϊόοιεν, δηϊοῖεν.

(7) Verbs in -áw occur in epic Greek without contraction only in particular cases, chiefly when the root is monosyllabic, or the characteristic vowel a is long; e. g. ἔχρας (from χράω), διψάων (from διψάω), and from ναιετάω, ναιετάουσι, ναιετάοντα, &c. In general, however, these verbs undergo contraction, and then again the contracted sound is frequently

lengthened, a similar and, for the most part, short sound being inserted

Whether a long or short vowel must be inserted, is determined by the nature of the word and by the relation of the syllables to the metre. The short sound is inserted when the preceding syllable is short, as in all the above examples; on the contrary, the long sound enters where a long syllable is essential to the metre, consequently chiefly in the middle of other long syllables; e. g.

In rare instances, and only in certain forms of particular verbs, the inserted sound follows that of the contraction. This happens only in the mingled sound w, when succeeded by vτ, and in w, which is then lengthened into wo; e. g.

ἡβάοντες contr. ἡβῶντες epic lengthened form ἡβώοντες

δράοιμι

...

δρώμι

...

δρῴοιμι

Obs. I In epic Greek the third pers, dual in -την of some verbs contracts -ae into η; e. g. προσαυδήτην (from προσαυδάω). This contraction occurs in the same form of two verbs also in -έω, namely, in ἀπειλήτην (from ἀπειλέω) and ὁμαρτήτην (from ὁμαρτέω). Also an n enters into infinitives of verbs in -áw and -éw, formed with the termination -μεναι; e. g. γοήμεναι, πεινήμεναι (from γοάω, πεινάω); so also φιλήμεναι (from φιλέω), &c.

Obs. 2 In the epic writers, the imperf. in some verbs changes a into e; e.g. μeνο!νεον (from μενοινάω), ὁμόκλεον (from ὁμοκλάω), ἤντεον (from ἀντάω). On the further extension of this usage by the Ionians, see below, (b).

Obs. 3 In some verbs in -οάω, the Ionic contraction of on into ω (see below, (b)) occurs also in the epic language ; e. g. ἐπιβώσομαι for ἐπιβοήσομαι (from ἐπιβοάω).

(b) In the Ionic dialect verbs in -έω are generally uncontracted, except that they frequently contract eo and sou into εν ; e. g. ποιεῦ for ποιοῦ, ποιεύμενος for ποιούμενος. Also in Ionic, as has been shown above ((a), (a)) in the case of the epic dialect, an e is frequently rejected in the 3 pers. sing. imperf. pass. In verbs in -ow the Ionians make use of the contracted sound ev instead of ov; e. g. ἐδικαίευν for ἐδικαίουν (from δικαιόω). They also adopt the usual contractions in verbs in -σω. Verbs in -áw are likewise regularly contracted by them, although they frequently choose η instead of a as the mixed sound of contraction; e. g. ópŷv for ὁρᾷν : this particularly happens if an i precedes ; e. g. θυμιῆται, ἰῆσθαι for

θυμιᾶται, ἰᾶσθαι. But in many cases the a of these verbs changes in Ionic into e, and contraction is then omitted; e.g. poréw for porów, épúτeov for púτuov, &c. They frequently, however, adopt the contraction of ao into w, and insert an additional before the mixed sound; e. g. χρέωνται for χρώνται (from χράομαι), ἐκτέωντο for. ἐκτῶντο (from Kтάομaι), &c. As therefore verbs in -áw become in this manner verbs in -éw, they also admit of contraction into ev (consequently for ao and aov); e. g. εἰρώτευν for εἰρώτων, ἀγαπεῦντες for ἀγαπῶντες. It is remarkable that the Ionians, with whom the resolved form predominates, should adopt contraction in certain cases where the Attic writers reject it. This happens in the derivative tenses of verbs in -oáw, where on is contracted into w; e. g. βώσω, ἔβωσα for βοήσω, ἐβόησα (from βοάω), ἀμβώσας for αναβοήσας. The epic prolongation in verbs in -άω and -δω is rarely used by the Ionians.

(c) The Doric dialect, like the Ionic, contracts eo and cou into ev; e. g. ποιεῦντι for ποιέοντι = ποιέουσι. In verbs in -άω the Dorians contract αο, αου and aw into a; eg. πεινᾶμες for πεινάομεν, contr. πεινῶμεν, πεινᾶντι for πεινάουσι, contr. πεινῶσι. On the contrary, it is worthy of remark that ae and aeɩ are contracted by them not into a but into n; e.g. ἐρῇ and ἐρῇν for ἐρᾷ and ἐρᾷν, τολμῆτε for τολμάτε. Also verbs iu -ew take the Doric infinitive termination -nv, contr. from -env; e. g. koσμîν for κοσμεῖν. In very broad Doric we have φιλίω, φιλίομες, φιλίοντι for φιλέω, φιλέομες, φιλέουσι.

(d) On the Æolic dialect nothing can be advanced with safety, on account of the few and uncertain traces of its usage. A particular infinitive form of verbs in -áw and -ów with the terminations -aus and -ous is given as a peculiarity belonging to it; e. g. γέλαις for γελᾶν, ὕψοις for ὑψοῦν.

(7) With respect to the accent in contracted verbs, attention must be paid to the general rules for the accentuation of verbal forms combined with the observations on the change of the accent in contraction.

§ XIII. Anomalous Verbs.

334 Although the verbs which have been given in the paradigms are called regular, the student has already seen that they are all liable to defects and anomalies; and even TÚTTш, the most complete specimen of a regular conjugation, will be found again in the list of irregular verbs. In fact, the more common the occurrence of a verb is, the more liable it is to casual affections; and

the study of the irregular verbs is, in fact, a study of those verbs which the learner will meet with most frequently in the course of his reading.

335 The irregularities with which the student has to make himself acquainted, may be classed under two different heads. (I) Anomalies of signification. (II) Anomalies of form.

(I) Anomalies of Signification.

336 Anomalies of signification arise from some apparent contradiction between the form of the person-endings and the action expressed. Properly speaking, the person-endings which are equivalent to an instrumental case, such as -μ, -μev, &c., are appropriated to the active voice; while those which are equivalent to a locative case are appropriated to the middle or passive voice. Thus Sisw-u means, "a giving by me;" Sidoδίδωμι μεν, δίδομαι, μev, "a giving by us;" but dido-paι, "a giving on or of me;" Sidó-μela, "a giving on or of us" (285). But the passive form διδό-μεθα, of the person-endings is in many cases exclusively adopted by verbs which have no trace of a passive meaning, and which we call deponent, because they have entirely deponed or laid aside the signification proper to the person-endings. On the other hand we have seen that an insertion of the elements On or n supersedes the proper force of the active person-endings, as affecting the voice of a verb (289, (g)). And with regard to the future, we shall see that the form in -pal, from в (290), or what is commonly called the first future middle, may be used in particular verbs as a passive (342), and in other verbs as an active future (344). In considering, therefore, the anomalies of signification exhibited by the Greek verb, it will be desirable to notice first the deponent verbs, in which the form is throughout inconsistent with the signification, and then to pass on to the anomalous use of particular tenses.

(A) Deponent Verbs.

337 The meaning of the deponent verbs and their relation to the middle voice will be explained in the Syntax. Here it is merely necessary to say that (1) if the aorist is formed in -σáμŋv, according to the type of the middle voice, a verb of this class is