37 A Syllable is short when it contains a short vowel, and is followed by a single consonant, or by two consonants, in which the articulation is not divided (above, 30, B).

Practically we find that while a short vowel is almost always short before

πρ, κρ, τρ: φρ, χρ, θρ: βρ, γρ, δρ,

generally short before

πλ, κλ, τλ: φλ, χλ, θλ: πν, κν: χν, θν: τμ:

rarely short before

βλ, γλ: γμ, γν: δμ, δν, μν:

all of which may begin a word; a short vowel may retain its quantity in the same word before κμ, Xμ, Oμ, тv, þv, which cannot begin a word. This is simply the result of more or less facility of articulation.

Obs. This rule applies only to Attic Greek, and here also we have exceptions. Thus on the one hand we find: ws aïde Tāτрós (Eurip. Electr. 1005); and on the other hand we have: elva Búßλov dè kápπos OỦ Vika σTáɣUV (Esch. Suppl. 742). It is to be remarked that in parathetic compounds the mute followed by a liquid always makes the vowel long by position; thus we have always ēκ-λéλoma (Eurip. Herc. F. 230), EK-λimov (Iph. T. 750), and the like. In Epic Greek we generally find a short vowel made long before the mute and liquid, and the vowel retains its quantity only in those cases in which a metrical exigency arises, especially when any mute except y is followed by p, and before the combined sounds κλ, πλ, τλ and χλ.

38 The natural quantity of the vowels e, o, is distinguished by a difference of characters: for e, o, are always short; 7, w, always long by nature.

39 The quantity of a, i, v is determined by etymology, and learned by experience. When they involve an absorption or contraction, they are necessarily long; when they represent a mere residuum of articulation they are necessarily short. Thus the cases of λαμπάδα for λαμπάδων, οἱ δαίμοσι for δαίμον-σι, οι σωζοίατο for owlowTo, &c., show that may be omitted without compensation beyond that of the short vowel à; whereas the cases of eis for ἐν-s, of οδούς for ὀδόντες, of δαίμων for δαίμονος, of τύψας for TÚAVT-s, &c., show that an absorbed v may be represented by a long vowel or diphthong. An observation of these contradictory phenomena enables us to form some general rules. On the one hand we know that in all words in which a stands for v or vτ that

vowel is short; this applies to all neuters plural and words like déka, where we know from etymology that the combination T is absolutely omitted, and to all uncontracted accusatives singular in -a, for these have dropt their final v. On the other hand we know from this that while accusatives plural in -ă-s from accusatives singular in -ă are necessarily short, those in -ās from accusatives singular in -av, are necessarily long; for as odoús=odóvτ-s is to τύψας = τύψαντες, so is λόγους = λόγον-ς to μούσας = μούσαν-ς. The accent often indicates the quantity, according to the following general rules:

(a) Every doubtful vowel, when circumflexed, is long by nature; as λάας, ἶσος, θύμα.

(b) Every doubtful vowel at the end of a word is short, if the penultima is circumflexed, or if the antepenultima has the acute accent; as χώμα, βασίλεια, δίωξις, πέλεκυς.

(c) Every doubtful vowel in the penultima is short, when it has the acute accent, if the final syllable is also short; as Toλλăκις, τίσις, κλυσις.

πολλά

An accurate knowledge of the quantity of syllables involving a, i, or v must be gained by study and observation. For reference, it may be convenient to append the following synopsis of the facts, which is mainly derived from Rost. It enumerates successively the cases in which these vowels are used long in the different syllables of words:

(1) Long a in Greek words.

A. Long ă in the final syllable.

The terminations, whose quantity is here to be determined, are -a, -av, -ap, and -as.

I. The termination -ā.

1 The quantity of a in the nominative of the first declension, is often regulated by etymological considerations, and is fully examined in its proper place (below, 162).

2 In the remaining cases of the first declension which end with -a, the a is long in the Doric genitive termination (below, 165, ); also in the dative sing. in -a, and in the nom. and accus. dual. The quantity of the vocative is regulated by that of the nominative; but in words whose nom. ends with -as or -ns, a in the vocative is short (below, 165, a).

3 As a termination of the second declension, a is always short, except in the plural of contracted neuters; e.g. ὀστᾶ instead of ὀστέα, χρυσά instead of χρύσεα.

4 a is also short in the termination of the third declension, with the following exceptions: (a) the word kάpā (a head)-(b) the accus. sing. in -ea of words in -evs; e. g. iepéā (from iepeús): also the accus. sing. when formed by contraction from -ea, which always happens with words in -ŋs, having a vowel preceding their termination; e.g. vyâ instead of vyɩéa (from vyɩýs)—(c) the neut. plur. of words in -as, gen. -aos, and of some in -os with an e preceding, for these are formed by contraction from -aa and -ea ; e.g. κέρα instead of κέραᾶ (from κέρας), κλέα instead of κλέα (from xéos). The Epic writers, however, in the first of these frequently, and in the latter usually, make the a short—(d) the dat. sing. of neuters in -as, gen. -aos ; e. g. γήρα instead of γήραϊ (from γήρας).

5 of adverbs with a long in the final syllable, we have all those taken from datives of the first declension, as dŋuooía, idía, together with λάθρα, πέρᾳ, and the Doric κρυφᾷ, παντᾷ, which are frequently, though as it seems erroneously, written without the subscript. In all other adverbs, as well as in numerals and prepositions, the termination a is always short.

6 Also as a verbal termination, a is long only when formed by contraction ; e.g. γέλα instead of γέλας, γελᾷ instead of γελάει. In all other cases it is invariably short.

II. Termination -āv.

1 In the first declension, the termination -av of accusatives sing. is long in those words which have a long in their nom., consequently in all ending with -a, which are given in 162, a, and in those in -as; e.g. χώραν, λείαν, φιλίαν, also νεανίαν (from νεανίας) Πυθαγόραν, &c. But if the nominative ends in -a short, as is the case with the words of this termination given in 162, b, then the accus. also has av short; e.g. dảλńOctav, &c. The Doric termination -âv of genitives plur. is long; e. g. Νυμφᾶν instead of Νυμφών.

2 As a nominative termination of the third declension, -av is long only in masculines; e. g. Tauáv, and in the single neut. „âv.

3 Adverbs ending in -av have a short, with the exception of ayāv, λίαν, πέραν.

4 -av, as a verbal termination also, is always short, except in the infin. of verbs in -áw, where a is formed by contraction from -au and is

usually written with the subscript; e.g. yeλâv, or yeλâv. This termination remains long even when it is lengthened in Epic into -aav ; e.g. ἀντιααν, οι ἀντιάν.

III. Termination -ap.

The final -ap, which occurs only in the third declension, is short, except in monosyllables, as ψάρ. In στέαρ (tallow) and φρέαρ (a well), the lengthening of a is peculiar to the Attic writers; the Epic poets, on the contrary, make it short.

IV. Termination -as.

1 As a nominative termination of the first declension, -as is invariably long, e. g. raμíās, IIvdayópās. In the accus. plural of the first declension, -as is always long, except in the Doric poets, who have auras, &c. (Theocr. 111. 2).

2 In the third declension, a is long in (a) words in -as, gen. -avroS; e.g. yiyās, iμás, and all participles of this termination (b) the two adjectives μέλας and τάλας-(c) compound adjectives in -κρᾶς, gen. -κρᾶτος ; e.g. xaλkóкpās, and the like, against the express testimony of Arcadius, p. 21, 5; p. 22, 18; Anecd. Bekk. p. 1226.

Obs. Accusatives plural of the third declension have the a always short; e. g. Owρakas, Makedovas, &c. Only in -eas of subst. in -eus it is long; e. g. lepéās (from lepeús), innéās (from inπeús), because the -a of the accus. sing. is long also (above, 39).

3-as is always short in the final syllable of verbal inflexions, except where it is lengthened by contraction ; e. g. ἐγέλας for ἐγέλαες.

B. Long á of penultimate syllables in declension and conjugation.

1 In the first declension, Doric and poetic genitives in -ão and -āwv have a long; e. g. 'Ατρείδαο, παρειάων, θεάων, &c. Also fem. participles in -āσa from masc. in -as; e.g. yeλáσāσa.

2 Before the case-ending of the third declension, a is long

(a) in the oblique cases of subst. in -av, gen. -āvos ; e. g. πaιáv, maiâvos, ̓Ακαρνάν, -άνος, δε

(b) in the oblique cases of many words in -ag, namely, (a) monosyllabic masc., and the fem. ῥάξ; e.g. Θράξ, οι Θρᾷξ, Θρᾷκός, βλάξ, βλακός, pá§, pāyós—(B) dissyllabic masc. in -ag, if the preceding syllable is by nature long, and all polysyllables with this ending; e. g. Owpaέ, -ākos, ola§, -άκος, σύρφαξ, -άκος, ὀρθίαξ, ακος, ἱέραξ, άκος-(γ) all masc. words of reproch and diminutives which take a vowel before -a; e.g. véaέ,

-ākos (a youth), pλvaέ, -ākos (a prattler)-(8) the following single words: πάσσαξ, στόμφαξ, φέναξ, φόρταξ, all having -akos in the genitive.

Obs. 1 of words in -ağ, all feminines (except pág) and the dissyllabic masc. whose penultima is not long by nature, keep a short before the case-ending; e. g. ǹ oτáž, σταγός, ἡ αὖλαξ, αὐλάκος, ὁ φύλαξ, - ἄκος.

Obs. 2 Yet these rules do not hold free from all exception, as some dissyllabic masc. in -ağ, whose penultima is not long by nature but by position, also retain the long vowel in the oblique cases. Such are κόνδαξ, κόρδαξ, πόρπαξ, all forming -άκος in the gen.

(c) of words in -as, the oblique cases retain the long vowel in o KPÁΣ, gen. κpārós (a head), and o λâs, gen. Aâos or dāós (a stone); also in compound adjectives in -κραs, gen. -κράτος, εις χαλκόκρας, gen. χαλκό κράτος.

(d) Those in -as, gen. -avros, have a long in the dat. plural only; e.g. ἱμᾶσι (from ἱμάς), γράψασι (from γράψας).

3 In the inflexions of verbs, the a of the penultima is invariably long in -aσ, which is used for the 3 pers. plur. perf. act., and in verbs in -μι for the 3 pers. plur. pres. ; e.g. eiλýpāσi, didóãσi, čaσi. In all other verbal terminations it is short; eg. - μεν, -άμην, -ἄτε, -ἄσαν, -άτο, &c.

4 In the last syllable of the root, a is long before the verbal termination

(a) in the aor. 1 act. and med. of verbs in -aívo; e.g. πιαίνω), γρᾶνα (from ὑγραίνω).

ἐπίανα (from

(b) in the perf. 2, where the a is retained unchanged; e.g. čāya (from ἄγνυμι), ξάδα (from ανδάνω), κέκραγα (from κράζω).

Obs. An exception to this rule is found in the Epic forms of the perf. 2 of vowelverbs, which have the a always short; e. g. ßéßăa, yéyăa, péμăa.

(c) of words in -ávw, only iκávw (I come), has always a long a in the penultima; κɣáνw (I find) and 40ávw (I anticipate) have the a long in the Epic writers, but are used short by the Attics. All others with this termination have the a short.

(d) In verbs in -aw, a is long when the preceding syllable is long, and short when it is short ; e.g. πεινάω, διψάω, ὁράω, γελάω, χαλάω. Also it is long in the two Attic forms kaw (I burn) and κλáw (I weep) instead of Kaiw and kλaiw. Respecting the quantity of a, when it remains unchanged in the future and derivative tenses of verbs in -aw, see below, 333, (1), (a).

C. Long a in the middle syllables of derivative words.

1 In derivative words a is usually long, when followed by a vowel; namely,