ment houses erected for the working people by the Social-Democratic administration of the Community of Vienna.

The Social Democrats and the Christian Socialists both made mistakes, otherwise they would have come to an armistice and mutual understanding. Pitted against each other by the radical Fascist Heimwehr they did not see the greater danger becoming more and more imminent the Nazis. Disregarding well-meant advice in the first days of February 1934, immediately before the clash, Chancellor Dollfuss refused to admit two members of the Social-Democratic party into his Government and so restore democracy and legal order. By crushing the Social Democrats the authoritarian State was established-but without taking into account the growing power of the National Socialists.

The events of the following 4 years became a pattern for more than one of the small nations later subjugated by the Nazis. After Dollfuss paid with his life, his successor tried in vain to save the country from its final fate. It was too late. Austria had been maneuvered too far into the maelstrom of the Nazi flood. The last feeble but desperate attempts of a sinking ship to keep afloat―a plebiscite and the reconciliation of the working class-failed. March 13, 1938, was only the logical consequence of February 1934, which in turn can be traced back to July 1927.

Meanwhile the principles of education, democratic-almost radical-in the first stages of the reform, became increasingly conservative. The first step in this direction was represented by the curricula of 1927, in which, however, the main principles of the reform, particularly those affecting the elementary school, were preserved. The second and more drastic step was taken in 1934, when in general policy and school politics "the clock was put back to the days before 1848," and the secondary school reverted in form except for the schools for girls to that of the period prior to the Marchet reform of 1908.

Thus the period 1918-38 comprises three phases of educational development in Austria: 1918-27, democratic school reform; 1927-34, cautious but definite tendency toward conservatism; and 1934-38, educational reaction.

The Democratic School Reform, 1918-27

Education prior to 1918

The educational system inherited by the Austrian Republic from the Monarchy had a dual character. On the one hand, after 4 or 5 years of elementary schooling there was the road of secondary school plus university or other educational institution of corresponding rank leading to the learned professions, higher posts in finance, industry, commerce, and the civil service; on the other, after 5 years of ele

mentary schooling, the road of 3 or 4 years of higher elementary or burgher school leading to the "nonlearned professions" in trade, commerce, and industry, or to posts of inferior rank in State administration. The former was open to all, but frequented mostly by children of the upper social classes; the latter was attended by children of the lower and lower middle classes. The choice of school career had to be made on leaving the lower elementary school for there was no articulation between the schools of the two diverging roads and little between the various types of secondary schools leading to higher education.

The decision of the school career of a child was not always a matter of wealth. Tradition, social standing of the parents, and local opportunities for higher study played an important part. Further, the decision as to a boy's career was affected frequently also by considerations connected with compulsory military service. The pre-war form of this service required every man to devote 3 years between the ages of 21 to 24 to service in the army without attainment, ordinarily, of the rank of officer. Graduation from a secondary school or from a higher vocational school, or success in a not too difficult examination in place of the regular leaving examination of these schools qualified for 1 year of voluntary military service with the prospect of the rank of officer. The year of voluntary military service could be taken on attainment of 18 years of age or after the completion of studies.

Elementary education. The first elementary-school law in Austria was issued December 6, 1774, by Empress Maria Theresa. Under it school attendance was compulsory from the 6th to the 12th year of age. Trivial schools giving instruction in religion and the three R's were to be established in each community; higher elementary schools (Hauptschulen) in the larger cities; and normal or model schools (Normalschulen) in the capital city of each province, where they were to serve also as places for the education and examination of teachers. The schools were all under the general supervision of the State until 1806, when they were placed under that of the ecclesiastical authorities. State supervision was resumed by a statute of May 14, 1869-the third elementary-school law-which placed this responsibility on local, district, and provincial special school councilors. The purpose of the elementary school according to this law "is to give children a moralreligious education, develop their mental faculties, equip them with knowledge and skill necessary for life, and provide the basis for developing good and fit human beings and members of society."

A supplementary law of May 2, 1883, provided for a 3-year burgher school (Bürgerschule) based on completion of the first 5 years of the elementary school. Graduation from the burgher school qualified for admission to schools for the education of elementary-school teachers (p. 32) and to higher vocational schools not based on secondary-school

attendance. To meet the needs of the population of rural and mountainous districts, school attendance in these areas was reduced to 6 years beginning at 6 years of age.

Statistics show that on leaving the lower elementary school only 7 percent of the boys entered a secondary school, while 93 percent continued in the higher or burgher school. Further, of those who completed the burgher school only a small percentage entered the 2-year lower or 4-year higher special schools for commerce, agriculture, handicraft, or technical (trade) schools.

Secondary education. The secondary school in Austria is of venerable age, but its development as a medieval institution under the direction of Monastic orders is not within the province of this bulletin. After the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1773, the gymnasia were administered more and more by the State. They were 6-year schools with an attached 2-year obligatory course in philosophy (philosophische Obligatcurs). Already other types of secondary schools foreshadowing later rich developments were beginning to appear. Thus the term "real or modern school" (Realschule) was used in 1769, and the first commercial school established in 1770.

The Austrian secondary school of our period was born in 1849, when through the Plan of organization for the Austrian gymnasia (Organisationsentwurf für die Oesterreichischen Gymnasien)—its Magna Charta-the gymnasium became an 8-year school comprising a 4-year lower gymnasium (Untergymnasium) and a 4-year upper gymnasium (Obergymnasium). The real school which prior to this was a 2-year school preparing for direct entry to industry became a 6-year school. In 1867 it was given a 7-year curriculum of more humanistic character.

The real gymnasium (Realgymnasium) with a modern language instead of Greek and some descriptive geometry in the fifth and sixth years, and the reform real gymnasium (Reform Realgymnasium) with a modern language from the first year and Latin from the fifth year were established through a school reform of 1908.

Private secondary schools for girls (literally "secondary schools for daughters"-Höhere Töchterschulen) arose in the 1890's. Six-year lyceums (Lyzeen) for girls were established by a statute of December 11, 1900. Graduation from the 6-year lyceum qualified for admission to the university only as an auditor. In 1910 the lyceum was reorganized to comprise a 4-year lower section corresponding practically to the first 4 years of the real school and a 4-year upper section quite similar to a reform real gymnasium.

Success in the final or maturity examination (Reifeprüfung) with which the secondary school course closed was marked by a certificate of maturity (Reifezeugnis). This certificate was the regular requirement for admission to a university in Austria.

Graph 1 which follows presents the organization of education in Austria about as it was immediately prior to the reform period of 1918-27.

Education after 1918

Immediately after the first World War the former Imperial Royal Ministry of Worship and Education became a part of the Ministry of

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School year : 1: 2 : 3: 5: 6: 7: 8: 9:10 11: 12: Pupil's age : 6: 7: 8: 9 10 11 12 13 14 : 15: 16 : 17 : Class I : II : III: IV : I : II : III: IV : V : VI :VII :VIII: :

Figure 1.-Organization of elementary and secondary education prior to 1919

Interior where it was changed in composition to include not only former juridical officers but also elementary and secondary school teachers of experience and reputation.

After November 10, 1920, when the new Federal constitution of October 1 of that year became effective the organization of school administration in Austria was about the same as before the War. The

Federal Ministry of Education (Bundesministerium für Unterricht) 1 was the supreme administrative authority for the whole educational system, including commercial schools (p. 29), but excluding trade and agricultural vocational schools. Within each province the provincial school council (Landesschulrat) had charge of school administration with the assistance of district and local school boards.

A Division of School Reform comprising two subdivisions, one each for elementary and secondary schools, was established in the Ministry It was staffed with teachers and educators of prominence regardless of political creed.

Until 1934, when Austria became an authoritarian State, school laws were enacted by Parliament and were for each period until then a reflection of the political constellation. The provincial diets had no legislative authority in general school policy. They could issue regulations and decrees only in compliance with laws already made by the National legislative body.

Work on the Austrian school reform began immediately after March 15, 1919, when Otto Glöckel entered office as Under Secretary of State for Education. He gave the school reform an energetic start that continued to work long after he left office in spite of increasing reactionary tendencies. That the reform outlived the political changes of the later post-war years is indication of the soundness of its underlying ideas.

The first political action-greatly opposed by conservative and ecclesiastical circles-was the decree of April 10, 1919, which abolished compulsory participation in religious exercises at school.

For cooperation between home and school, parents' organizations and school communities (Schulgemeinden) were recommended by various decrees of the same year.

By a decree of April 30, 1919, representative bodies of teachers, one each for elementary schools, secondary schools, and academic institutions, were organized for negotiation of pedagogical and professional questions. Except on special occasions when joint meetings were held to discuss problems common to all categories of teachers, each group met by itself. Occasions for joint meetings were to prove the unity of education and of educators from the country school teacher to the university professor.

As a symbol of political change the name of the official organ of the Ministry was changed from Verordnungsblatt (Journal of Regulations) to Volkserziehung (National Education). This appeared in two divisions: One devoted to official decrees, orders, and announcements; the other a pedagogical magazine-devoted largely to discussions. of school reform by leading educators.

Unless otherwise specified the terms "Minister" and "Ministry" refer in this publication, respectively, to the Minister of Education and the Ministry of Education.