In comparison with pre-war types the secondary school showed important changes in spite of the conservative tendencies affecting it. The similarity in curricula of the various types except the gymnasium in the first 4 years has already been noted. In addition, the languages lost something of their dominant character. While Latin was given a total of 27 hours in the first 4 years of the pre-reform gymnasium, and French a total of 19 hours in the real school, only 15 hours in 3 of the first 4 years of the secondary school were now devoted to these languages. Further, the curricula were enriched by the addition of handwork, shorthand, and singing as required subjects.

Upper school for girls (Frauenoberschule).-The upper school for girls with a fully developed schedule in home economics and child care had in its curriculum only one foreign language—a modern language beginning with the second year (table 7).

Table 7.-Plan of studies for the upper school for girls

Aufbau school (Aufbauschule).—To enable specially gifted young people to take up secondary school study after having passed the compulsory school age (14 years) or even after having entered a trade on the completion of an apprenticeship (17 years) and to give them an opportunity for admission to the maturity examination (p. 13), two new types of schools were established-the Aufbau school and the middle school for workers.

The Aufbau school was a 5-year school based on completed elementary education. It offered instruction along gymnasium lines with

Latin beginning in the first year and Greek or a modern language in the second. By the opening of school year 1937-38 only one Aufbau school had been established. It was a Federal school with 113 pupils. Middle school for workers (Arbeiter Mittelschule).—The middle school for workers began as an 8-semester evening school of the real gymnasium type with Latin and English as the prescribed foreign languages. Later a ninth semester was added. For admission the applicant had to be at least 17 years of age and pass an entrance examination. Final admission was granted only after the first semester of study.

On completion of the ninth semester the student could apply for admission to the maturity examination which corresponded to that of the real gymnasium with descriptive geometry (p. 15). Subjects not included in the maturity examination were covered by an examination taken in the course of the last 7 semesters and corresponding in content and value to the preliminary examination for externists (Vorprüfung bei einer Externistenprüfung, p. 20.

Provisions were made for opening three of these schools in 1928-29, one each at Vienna, Linz, and Graz. According to statistics for school year 1937-38, however, Austria had two middle schools for workers. They were Federal schools with a total of 270 students.

Maturity examination (Reifeprufüng).— Among innovations introduced in the first reform period and now abandoned were those made in the maturity examination (p. 13) largely in an effort to reduce its mental strain. Thus the theme (Hausarbeit), the most outstanding feature of the reform, became voluntary and bereft of importance through regulations issued May 8, 1930. From an integral part of the examination the theme became merely an appendix with the one advantage of restricting the examination in the subject in which it was written to the phase it covered. The number of themes or theses declined, but since the task of writing them was now undertaken by the more ambitious students interested in a particular subject, they improved in quality.

The maturity examination comprised written tests and an oral examination. At all types of schools the written tests included German; the language or languages studied; and mathematics, including descriptive geometry at the real school. The oral examination covered three subjects in the selection of which the candidate had a limited choice. At the gymnasium two subjects were selected from the language-history subject group and one from that of natural science; at the real school two subjects were selected from the mathematics-science group and one from that of language-history; at the real gymnasium and the upper school for girls two subjects were selected from one group and one subject from the other. At the upper schools for girls the leaving examination included also a practical examination in child care and theory of education (kindergarten)

taken within the first 3 months of the last year; and in home economics, taken 2 months before the close of the school year.

In connection with the leaving examination it may be added that facilities were provided in March 1931 whereby girls who had finished the old type 6-year lyceum (p. 5) and pupils who had finished a special school such as a commercial academy could take the maturity examination for externists (Externistenreifeprüfung). The same opportunity had already been provided for graduates of teacher-training schools (p. 32). The way to higher studies and an eventual change in the career of a young man or woman thus opened was often of great convenience in times of economic stress and shortage of positions. Reform of 1934

Political background

The time from the self-elimination of the Austrian Parliament on March 4, 1933, to the bloody days of mid-February 1934, was a period of transition, but already of an authoritarian character. Nominally, political parties still existed, although much restricted in their activities through censorship and administrative measures except for the Christian Socialists and the Fascist private militia of "home defense" (p. 2).

The authoritarian Government, as already pointed out (p. 3), directed its energies not only in opposition to the Social Democrats but also against the Nazis. This anti-National Socialist attitude was of political significance when the National Socialist party of Adolf Hitler came into power in Germany in January 1933. Although politically separated from Germany, Austria after the World War had a feeling of kinship and of being nationally and culturally a part of the neighboring German Republic. After Hitler's accession to power in Germany, however, political efforts in Austria were directed toward building up a specifically "Austrian" culture--German, naturally-but with stress on "Austrian."

In the field of education this expressed itself first in the terminology of a decree of May 12, 1933, ordering that readers and histories used in the elementary and secondary schools must comply with the patriotic and moral-religious (vaterländische und sittlich-religiöse) aim of education.

In the curricula of 1928 and 1930 for secondary and elementary schools, respectively, the spirit of education was to be "social, civic, national, and moral-religious" (Erziehung in sozialem, staatsbürgerlichem nationalem und sittlich-religiösem Geist). The decree of 1933 united the separate concepts of civic and national education (staatsbürgerlich und national) to patriotic (literally "fatherlandish”— vaterländisch) education.

The change in terminology can be explained only as the effect of the change in the political relations between Austria and Germany after the political developments of 1933 in the Reich. Until then there was no contradiction or antagonism between "staatsbürgerlich" and "national." The feeling of a cultural and national "Anschluss" (union) between German Austria and Germany was alive and not a matter of dispute or discussion.

The political conception of the authoritarian or, as it may well be called, totalitarian Austrian State opposed the political ideals both of Democracy and Social Democracy and stressed a unified Austrian patriotism represented by the "Patriotic Front" (Vaterländische Front)-the only recognized political body of the Austrian Federal State for in the new Constitution of May 1, 1934, the term "Republic" was studiously avoided.

From the nature of the authoritarian regime and the open and secret opposition of a strong and reckless force within the country backed from beyond the borders to which the term Fifth Column-though then unknown-may aptly be applied, the necessarily severe measures resulted which changed the school administrative authority into practically a penal court without, however, checking or abating the Nazi tide which by this attitude was aroused to even greater activity. Severe punishment was inflicted for political offenses such as activity favoring prohibited political parties (National-Socialists, Social Democrats, and Communists) and participation in political demonstrations. After the establishment of the authoritarian regime hundreds of cases were registered with the Ministry. Most of the cases were National-Socialist, only a few Social-Democratic or Communistic. The political development led to the Nazi Putsch of July 25, 1934, in which students also took part. This event was followed by measures even more strict, such as confinement or local expulsion from school.

To handle these affairs a system of regulations and procedures was set up, including special officials entrusted with these political matters in the divisions for higher, secondary, and elementary education of the Ministry.

A decree of July 7, 1934, stressing patriotic education as a prescribed purpose of each school states that anti-Austrian propaganda would be met with most severe measures and that in the preceding school year 25 pupils from secondary schools and schools for the education of elementary-school teachers had been punished for political offences by general expulsion from the Austrian schools, and 150 by local expulsion.

In a general regulation for secondary schools issued August 27, 1937, by the Ministry, the principles of freedom and responsibility which dominated school discipline in the first years of the era of

school reform and led to experiments with school communities (Schulgemeinde, p. 7) were replaced by those of authority and obedience. The introductory paragraph of the regulation states that

The purpose and aim of the secondary school is to give its pupils a general education which at the same time qualifies them for university study. The secondary school shall develop the moral, mental, and physical powers of the youth entrusted to its care and educate the young people to moral-religious, patriotic, social-national-loyal feeling, thinking, and doing (zu sittlichreligiösem, vaterländischem und sozial-volkstreuem Fühlen, Denken, und Handeln).

The political development and the events of the last years, the continuous spread of Nazism in Austria in which the youth of the higher and secondary schools took increasing part, are reflected in the paragraphs dealing with participation in associations. Pupils of secondary schools were prohibited to form or belong to associations except that of the "Austrian Youth" (Österreiches Jungvolk). This was an association of the Patriotic Front (p. 21) formed on the model of the Hitler Youth in Germany for boys and girls under 18 years of age and aimed to give patriotic education to Austrian youth outside of school. Excepted also were Catholic and Protestant youth associations acknowledged by their respective church authorities, and a number of other associations avowedly serving Austrian patriotic aims. For enrollment in other associations for sport, art, etc., consent of the school authorities had to be obtained.

Wearing of the patriotic badge designed for pupils was strongly recommended as a visible sign of connection with the Austrian Fatherland.

As a public symbol of the Christian (Catholic) character of Austria which by the new Constitution was declared a Christian State, crosses were to be hung in school rooms and offices of public and private schools, according to a decree of June 4, 1934. By a decree of March 7, 1937, the flags with the cross-symbol of the Patriotic Front (Krucken Kreuz)-counterpart of the Nazi Swastika-were to serve the same purpose and to symbolize further the unity between pupils and teachers and their devotion to the Austrian Fatherland.

Through a decree of June 8, 1937, an examination in study of the Austrian Fatberland (Österreichische Vaterlandskunde) including civics, history, and geography of Austria became a required part of the maturity examination (Reifeprüfung, p. 13) of the secondary school.

In this connection may be mentioned that restrictive regulations were issued also for students' associations at the universities and other academic institutions. Without special permission from the academic authorities student caps and colored ribbons could not be worn.