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Essay on the Nature and Force of Evidence.

that had any man sat down to write a description of the creation, through its whole progress, by the agency of a great and powerful Being, he would have exhausted all the powers of language to give a commensurate idea of that Being. And when he further proposed to trace the operation of his moral government through the history of mankind, he would have made them superlatively wise, happy, and obedient, as the creatures of so pure and wise a God. He would have made virtue their governing principle, and set them above the contaminating influence of vice. The laws he would have invented for their government would have been adapted to this state of mental purity and unsinning obedience, and no provision would have been made to prevent the dominion of the passions, as a state of moral rectitude, placing them under the restraints of reason, would have precluded all suspicion of their rebellion against its dictates. No emanations of foresight would have appeared in anticipation, and no remedies would have been provided for unexpected disasters.

Such, one would be led to expect the Bible to be, had it been written by man; and such we find to be the character of those systems which men have formed and issued to their followers as divine revelations. Of these I need only mention the Mahometan Koran, and the visionary theory of Bramah; in both which the Divine Being is made rather to act the part of a magician, than of an intelligent creator.

But totally different is the character of the inspired volume we possess. There are no imaginary attributes assigned to the Deity, the simple but sublime description of the creation is supported and confirmed by the researches of the philosopher, and the whole system of nature, displays that degree of order, design, and contrivance, which those scriptures so amply declare, while throughout every part of their historical and prophetic contents, the human character bears an identity, that at once stamps it with the signet of truth.There no vice is palliated or concealed, and no virtue exalted beyond its just degree of merit; and even the most eminent characters, as Abraham, David, Solomon, &c. exhibit that mixture of human infirmity which proves the calamitous influence of primeval transgression, and the necessity of that perfect righteousness which can only be furnished by the "blood of Him who died for our sins, and rose again for our justification."

Such then I consider to be the incon

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trovertible proofs of the divine origin of that revelation, on the evidence of which the existence, attributes, and moral government of God are to be established.

Yet great as is the impression such a body of evidence is calculated to make on the human mind, the self-sufficient and presumptuous deist is found to reject it with contempt and disdain. This ap pears indeed unaccountable, but a slight examination into his motives will explain it. He sees by the light of nature that he is placed in an elevated station in the chain of being: his passions lead him to acts of vice and intemperance, and he wishes to indulge them, but this indulgence is contrary to those laws of moral rectitude established on the basis of revealed religion for the government of society, and in order to justify himself in their practice, he boldly denies the authority on which those laws are founded, asserts the laws of nature in his defence, and, discarding the moral attributes of God, declares himself a deist. Who can deny but a man who can act thus, with the advantages of modern education, and the volume of inspiration open before him, is more culpable and inexcusable than

"The poor Indian, whose untutor❜d mind Sees God in clouds, and hears him in the wind?"

If he attempts to support his infidelity by reasoning, he falls into the absurdities and contradictions we have examined, which require little argument to refute, though, to the minds of the ignorant and unthinking, they are replete with danger and mischief. But even suppose him to exert the ingenuity of a Voltaire, a Bolingbroke or a Gibbon, he has still to contend with difficulties which the light of nature cannot surmount, and when discoursing on the moral government and attributes of the Deity, all is doubt, uncertainty, and conjecture. On these points, which must strike the deist, in contemplating the great economy of nature in the disposition of the universe, as of the utmost importance, the evidence of nature affords no elucidation, and, sinking into total disbelief in rejecting the clue of revelation, he doubts, contrary to the evidence even of his senses, and denies the testimony of every day's experience.

Such is the general effect of the principles espoused by the deist, and which lead to crimes of the blackest dye, Restrained by no laws of moral rectitude, he becomes a blasphemer of his God, and a declared enemy to the friends of order, virtue, and religion.

E. G. B.

783 Methods for the Recovery of Persons apparently Drowned.

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METHODS RECOMMENDED BY THE HUMANE SOCIETY OF LONDON FOR THE RECOVERY OF PERSONS APPARENTLY DROWNED.

THIS article owes its present insertion to the following letter, lately received from a correspondent.

"MR EDITOR,

"SIR. We live near a dangerous river, the Idle, where many accidents frequently occur. Two persons were drowned during the last week, one of whom I am persuaded might have been recovered, if a professional man had been immediately on the spot, but no one lives within about four miles. The purport of my letter is to ask what are the most simple and efficacious modes of recovering persons under such distressing circumstances.

Yours respectfully,
H. BURR."

Mipon, near Bawtry, July 31, 1829. Drowning, it is well known, is the act of suffocating, or being suffocated, by water. Dr. Halley observes, that people not accustomed to diving begin to drown in about half a minute's time.

In Holland, where the country is intersected with an abundance of canals and inland seas, accidents frequently occurred to the inhabitants, many of whom, it was thought, were left to perish every year from a want of proper assistance. To remedy this defect, a society was formed at Amsterdam in the year 1767, which offered premiums to those who should save the life of a citizen in danger of perishing by water; and which proposed, from time to time, to publish the treatment, and method of recovery, observed in such cases.

This institution, which was every where encouraged through the United Provinces, by the magistrates, and by the States General, has been attended with very considerable success; and it appears that no less than two hundred persons have been recovered from death, by its exertions, in the space of about six years. In several of these cases, the recovered patients had continued upwards of an hour, without any signs of life, after they had been taken out of the water.

Instigated by this example, the magistrates of health at Milan and Venice issued orders, in 1768, for the treatment of drowned persons. The city of Hamburgh appointed a similar ordinance to be read in all churches, extending their succour not only to the drowned, but to the strangled, to those suffocated by noxious vapours, and to the frozen. The first part of the Dutch Memoirs was also translated

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into the Russian language, by command of the empress.

In 1769, an edict was published in Ger many, extending its directions and encouragement to every accident, like death, that afforded a possibility of relief.

In 1771, the magistrates of the city of Paris also founded an institution in favour

of the drowned; and in France they have been instrumental in saving forty-five permonths. sons out of sixty-nine, in about sixteen

In 1773, Dr. Cogan, and Dr. Hawes, of London, proposed a plan for the introduction of a similar institution into these kingdoms. The plan was so well received and encouraged, that they were soon, viz. in 1774, enabled to form a society, since called the Humane Society, for promoting its laudable designs.

The following abstract of the plan of this society, and method of treatment recommended by it, will not, we apprehend, be unacceptable to our readers. This society has undertaken to publish, in as extensive a manner as possible, the proper methods of treating persons in the unfortunate circumstances, to which they extend their relief; to distribute a premium of two guineas among the first persons, not exceeding four in number, who attempt to recover any person, taken out of the water for dead, within thirty miles of the cities of London and Westminster, provided they have not been longer than two hours under the water, and provided the assistants persevere in the use of the means recommended for the space of two hours, whether their attempts are successful or not. These rewards are also to include every other instance of sudden death, whether by suffocation from noxious vapours, hanging, syncopes, freezing, &c. They propose to distribute, in like manner, four guineas, wherever the patient has been restored to life; to give to any publican, or other person, who shall admit the body into his house without delay, and furnish the necessary accommodations, the sum of one guinea, and to secure him from the charge of burial in unsuccessful cases; and to present an honorary medal to those medical gentlemen, or others, who give their assistance gratis, and who are provided with a fumigator, and other necessaries, always in readiness, in all those cases in which they may prove instrumental of success. The device on one side of their medal is a boy, who is represented blowing an extinguished torch, with the hope, as the legend, "Lateat scintillula försan," imports, that a little spark may still remain. The reverse exhibits a civic wreath, which

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Methods for the Recovery of Persons apparently Drowned.

was the Roman reward for saving the life of a citizen, with a blank for the name of a person to whom the medal may be given; the inscription round the wreath, "Hoc pretium cive servato tulit," expresses the merit which obtained it.

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bricks wrapped in cloths, should be rubbed over the body, and particularly along the back. The natural and kindly warmth of a healthy person lying by the side of the body has been found in many cases very efficacious. The shirt or clothes, of an attendant, or the skin of a sheep fresh killed, may also be used with advantage. Should these accidents happen in the neighbourhood of a warm-bath, brewhouse, baker, glass-house, saltern, soap boiler, or any fabric where warm lees, ashes, embers, grains, sand, water, &c. are easily procured, it would be of the utmost service to place the body in any of these, moderated to a degree of heat but very little exceeding that of a healthy person.

Before giving any directions concerning the treatment of the drowned patient, it will be necessary to describe the method of recovering the body the implements for this purpose are termed drags. In navigable rivers, and where the person falls into the river clothed, the common boat-hook is likely to prove the most useful, from the circumstance of its being almost always at hand; and though not otherwise well adapted for the purpose, a body may often be recovered by it, before other drags, kept for the purpose, can be procured: another circumstance in their favour is, that in towns (where such accidents mostly occur) there are generally several boats near, each fur. nished with its hook or hitcher, which may be employed all at the same time; while on the other hand it cannot be expected that more than one drag can be got to the place in any reasonable time; for these reasons, it seems, that if any drag were contrived, which would answer well for both boat*hook and hitcher, it would be the best for rivers and canals, where the drowning sub-inflated in this manner, it may be attempted jects are mostly clothed.

The following is the method of treatment recommended by the society.

1. In removing the body to a convenient place, great care must be taken that it be not bruised, nor shaken violently, roughly handled, nor carried over the shoulders with the head hanging downwards, nor rolled upon the ground, or over a barrel, nor lifted up the hills. For experience proves, that all these methods are injurious, and often destroy the small remains of life. The unfortunate object should be cautiously conveyed by two or more persons, or in a carriage upon straw, lying as on a bed, with the head a little raised, and kept in as natural and easy a position as possible.

2. The body being well dried with a cloth, should be placed in a moderate degree of heat, but not too near a large fire. The windows, or door of the room, should be left open, and no more persons admitted into it than those who are absolutely neces sary as the life of the patient greatly depends upon having the benefit of a pure air. The warmth most promising of success is that of a bed, or blanket, properly warmed. Bottles of hot water should be laid at the bottom of the feet, in the joints of the knees, and under the arm-pits; and a warming-pan moderately heated, or hot 129.-VOL. XI.

3. The subject being placed in one or other of these advantageous circumstances as speedily as possible, various stimulating methods should next be employed. The most efficacious are, to blow with force into the lungs, by applying the mouth to that of the patient, closing his nostrils with one hand, and gently expelling the air again by pressing the chest with the other, imitating the strong breathing of a healthy person. The medium of a handkerchief, or cloth, may be used, to render the operation less indelicate. If the lungs cannot be

by blowing through one of the nostrils, and at the same time keeping the other close. Dr. Monro, for this purpose, recommends a wooden pipe, fitted at one end for filling the nostril, and at the other for being blown into by a person's mouth, or for receiving the pipe of a pair of bellows, to be employed for the same purpose, if necessary. Whilst one assistant is constantly employed in this operation, another should throw the smoke of tobacco up the fundament into the bowels, by means of a pipe, or fumigator, such as are used in administering clysters; or by a pair of bellows, till the other instrument can be procured. A third attendant should, in the mean time, rub the belly, chest, back, and arms, with a coarse cloth, or flannel, dipped in brandy, rum, or gin, or with dry salt, so as not to rub off the skin; spirits of hartshorn, volatile salts, or any other stimulating substance, must also be applied to the nostrils, and rubbed upon the temples very frequently. Electrical shocks, made to pass in different directions through the body, and particularly through the heart and lungs, have been recommended as very powerful stimuli; and, from the trials that have already been made, they promise considerable success. The body should, at intervals, be shaken also, and varied in its position.

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Dialogue on Smoking Tobacco.

4. If there be any signs of returning life, such as sighing, gasping, twitching, or any convulsive motions, beating of the heart, the return of the natural colour and warmth, opening a vein in the arm or neck may prove beneficial; but the quantity of blood taken away should not be large; nor should an artery ever be opened, as profuse bleeding has appeared prejudicial, and even destructive, to the small remains of life. The throat should be tickled with a feather, in order to excite a propensity to vomit; and the nostrils also with a feather, snuff, or any other stimulant, so as to provoke sneezings. A tea-spoonful of warm water may be occasionally administered, in order to learn whether the power of swallowing be returned; and if it be, a table-spoonful of warm wine, or brandy and water, may be given with advantage; but not before, as the liquor may get into the lungs, before the power of swallowing returns. The other methods should be continued with vigour, until the patient be gradually restored.

When the patient has been but a short time senseless, blowing into the lungs, or bowels, has been in some cases found sufficient; yet a speedy recovery is not to be expected in general. On the contrary, the above methods are to be continued with spirit for two hours, or upwards, although there should not be the least The same symptoms of returning life.

means of restoration are applicable to the various other cases of sudden death, recited in the beginning of this article.

When these prove unsuccessful, the surgeon's last resource is bronchotomy, or opening the arteria trachæa; for perhaps the air entering freely into the lungs, through the aperture made in the canal, through which they received it in their natural state, will restore the play of the lungs, and all the motions of the breast.

Mr. Hunter, F.R.S. has, at the request of a member of the Humane Society, published proposals for recovering persons apparently drowned; among which he recommends the following apparatus, with a view to the purposes of this society.

First, a pair of bellows; so contrived with two separate cavities, that by opening them, when applied to the nostrils or mouth of a patient, one cavity may be filled with the common air, and the other with air sucked out from the lungs; and by shutting them again, the common air may be thrown into the lungs, and that sucked out of the lungs discharged into the room. The pipe of these should be flexible, in length a foot or a foot and a half, and at least three-eighths

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of an inch in width; by this the artificial breathing may be continued, while the other operations, the application of the stimuli to the stomach excepted, are going on, which could not conveniently be the case, if the muzzle of the bellows were introduced into the nose. The end next the nose should be double, and applied to both nostrils. Secondly, a syringe with a hollow bougie, or flexible catheter, of sufficient length to go into the stomach, and to convey any stimulating matter into it, without affecting the lungs. Thirdly, a pair of small bellows, such as are commonly used in throwing fumes of tobacco up the anus. Phil. Trans. vol. lxvi. part ii. p. 412, 425. The Humane Society, since its first establishment, to the present time, has been instrumental in recovering a great number of persons out of the multitude of cases to which their attempts have been applied. See Reports of the Society for the Recovery of Persons apparently drowned.

Societies of a similar nature have been formed at Norwich, Bristol, Liverpool, Colchester, Hull, &c. and likewise at Cork, in Ireland. The board of police in Scotland has also interested itself in favour of the same benevolent design.

ON SMOKING TOBACCO.-A DIALOGUE BETWEEN ANDRONICUS AND JUNIA.

"Nought that is right think little; well aware What reason bids, God bids."-YOUNG. ANDRONICUS. I am glad to see you, my good neighbour Junia.-JUNIA. I thank you neighbour, Andronicus.-A. As we are both addicted to the practice of smoking, you will perhaps join me in the luxury of a pipe.-J. I feel inclined to accept your proposal: and, until we can hit upon a better subject, we will, if you please, discuss the moral merits of this same luxury. -A. I fear, sir, this theme promises to be a barren one; but, pray, what are you about to advance on this curious topic?— J. I have to say, that ever since I began to smoke, I have been unsatisfied as to the lawfulness of the practice. Often when I have got the tube into my mouth, and promised myself considerable delight, I could not help blushing to find myself attached to so dirty and pitiful a gratification. Now I wish particularly to know, whether you have ever felt in a similar manner on this subject.-A. Indeed, sir, though I must respect your sincerity, I pity the infirmity of your conscience.-J. Nay, but I wish you not to parry off my appeal.-A. Why,

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Dialogue on Smoking Tobacco.

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vation of mankind. And yet I attach more importance to it in a moral point of

cannot help suspecting it to be one of those "fleshly lusts, which war against the soul," and from which we are admonished to abstain.

I confess I have sometimes felt misgivings as to the propriety of smoking; but they have not been of a very violent or trouble-view, than you are disposed to do; for I some description, because I always regard them as the offspring of a morbidly scrupulous conscience.-J. Your candid acknowledgment strengthens the suspicions I entertain of our gratification: and, sir, it is a fact, that a similar acknowledgment has been made to me, either obliquely or plainly, by almost every serious person I have chosen to interrogate on the subject, who was addicted to the practice. I, too, have tried to believe my conscience a scrupulous one, and to laugh it to scorn, but with very small success.

A. Pray, sir, let us change the subject: for if we labour in this manner to conjure up the ghost of guilt, we shall lose the pleasure of smoking. Besides, I am of Dr. Watts's opinion, viz. that time is too short to be spent in endeavouring to ascertain whether smoking tobacco be lawful or no: and I find that the general run of moralists concur in this sentiment, regarding the point as too narrow and distant a ramification of morality-if a part of morality at all—to merit particular notice.— J. Your quotation from the good doctor is rather unfortunate for your purpose; for if talking about smoking be a waste of time, surely smoking is not a redeeming it. -A. But all the Dr. I think meant was, that the practice is purely indifferent, and, therefore, not worth contending about.J. If you allow it to be indifferent, you allow it at the same time to be useless and idle; but I think it is worth while to inquire, whether a useless practice would not be better relinquished than retained, or rather, may not so plain a matter be decided without inquiry.

A. I will be honest enough to tell you, sir, that I have always been accustomed to view with suspicion those persons who seem so vastly concerned about those minute aberrations of human conduct, which are hardly palpable to the most sensitive conscience: in such persons, there is too near a resemblance to that detestable race of hypocrites, who "paid tithe of mint, anise, and cummin," &c. but neglected the weightier matters of the law, and whose conduct was so severely censured by our Lord.-J. But you must not conceal the following observation of Christ respecting the passage you have quoted, "These ought ye to have done, and not to leave the other undone." Far be it from me to rank our present question amongst the essentials of religion, or to regard it as involving in its decision the everlasting sal

A. But why, sir, do you confine your animadversions to this luxury alone, since there are a thousand others, that are open to all the objections which I suppose you are prepared to urge against smoking.J. It is true, there are many other kinds of foolish self-indulgence besides that in question; but as I am not aware that either you or I am in the habit of practising them, it would answer no valuable purpose to introduce them into notice at present, since the lawfulness of smoking may be ascertained without attempting any such multiplication or comparison of particulars. -A. I am really sorry that we ever entered upon this pitiful topic; for your observations, in spite of myself, begin to impair my relish for tobacco, and make me fancy it tastes disagreeable; but as you seem determined not to drop the question, pray let us have the mighty arguments by which your view of it is supported.-J. With all my heart; but as I am no less desirous to receive, than to impart conviction, I am willing first to hear whatever you can ad. vance in its favour. And I would beg leave to remind you, that though you may regard our subject as comparatively diminutive, yet it becomes rational beings to be always willing to assign, if possible, satisfactory reasons for every part of their conduct.

A. It is not quite conformable to juridical regularity for the defendant to have the first hearing; but for this irregularity, the insignificance of our cause is, I presume, an ample apology. Two things I must premise. 1. I do not undertake to defend excess in smoking, any more than I would defend excess in eating and drinking. 2. I do not undertake a general defence of smoking, I mean only to state the reasons by which I deem myself justified in the practice. Other persons may have reasons of which I cannot avail myself, as, for instance, some may plead that smoking tobacco is beneficial to their health; but to me, this plea is useless. One reason, and that I confess a leading one, which induces me to smoke, is, that I find it a source of considerable pleasure, and pleasure that is innocent, because purchased at a trifling expense, and without the sacrifice of any good principle. Now I argue, that as God delights in the happiness of his creatures, it can never be his wish to with

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