715 Observations on Infinity of Power and Essence of Matter. principles, while his pleasure will be enhanced by an investigation, on mathematical principles, of the science of crystallography, which unfolds the regular formation of salts, metals, &c. A course of study thus pursued by natural gradations, expands the mental faculties, and adds fresh energies to the powers of thought, while it opens to the view new causes of love and gratitude to the great Architect of the universe. E. G. B. OBSERVATIONS ON THE INFINITY OF SIR,-For the honourable notice you have I was aware that some objections of this kind might arise, but did not anticipate so much opposition to it as I find from many of my scientific friends; in consequence of this, in conjunction with your observations, I am desirous of making some remarks relative to the subject, which perhaps appears to be objectionable chiefly from its novelty. | 716 thousand octillions of tons, that is, it would require a force equivalent to twice that immense weight to keep two such atoms in their places, were it possible to bring their centres so near to each other. Supposing the mean specific gravity of the earth to be five and a quarter times that of water, which is considered to be the nearest estimate, then its whole weight will be three millions six hundred and thirty-five thousand trillions of tons; but this is a very small part of the former number. In order to form some notion of the force estimated, suppose that the earth contains one thousand millions of inhabitants, and that each can count one hundred globes, each equal to our earth, in every minute of time; it would occupy them all, constantly day and night, for more than one million of millions of years, barely to count the number of globes, whose united weight would be but just sufficient to keep the two centres in their places, as 'above specified; and, if this force of the atoms is not sufficiently great, carry on the division, still by halving, till the last of another hundred points is found, and the force here will be as many times greater than the above mentioned force, as that itself exceeds a single grain; nor can we arrive at any limits. But this may be otherwise proved, thus: imagine spheres of different assignable radii to be described about the centre of the atom, as shewn in the corollary to the first postulate, then, as proved in the corollary, the whole force in each spherical surface is equal; for as much as the force is less at any point in a more distant surface, just so much is the surface greater; hence, the force at the centre is the same as it is in the whole of any one of these surfaces; but the force is infinitely greater in the whole surface, than it is at any one point in that surface: therefore, the force at the centre is infinite, taking the term in its strict mathematical sense. And first, when I stated that the force of atoms at their centres is infinite, the law of gravitation being continued to those centres, I intended that the term infinite should be understood precisely in its mathematical sense, viz. to designate a quantity greater than any assignable quantity of the same kind; and that it is so, is rigorously demonstrable on the principles proposed. For since the attractive force of the whole earth arises from the combined and compounded actions of its several component That matter is perceptible by means of atoms, each atom contributes some portion its powers is admitted, and when it was of the whole effect; and therefore, at a stated that these powers appear to constidefinite distance from its centre, its force is tute its essence, it was not intended to some definite quantity, at half that distance insinuate that this appears from the reasonit is four times greater, and at half the lasting in the sentence, or paragraph, but that distance, it is sixteen times greater, &c. Hence, there is a distance, where the force is, at least, one grain, at half that distance it is four grains, at the half of this last sixteen grains, and again, at the half of this, sixty-four grains, &e. Now let the division be carried on by halving, till we attain the hundredth point, and the force at this last point will be one hundred "1 it appears to be so from a consideration of phenomena in general; and consequently the inference must be taken from the work at large. In the objection it is said, that "the simple essence must necessarily be something distinct from its powers, and be that from which its powers emanate, and in which they inhere." Now, why must the simple essence necessarily be something 717 Observations on the Fall of Bodies. distinct from the powers? no man can assign the reason.. When it is said that matter is perceptible by means of its powers, the phrase is adapted to common language, as in another science we say the sun rises and sets taken literally, it furnishes the objection; but strictly and philosophically speaking, I take matter, and material force, to mean the same thing. Should we conceive the parts of matter to consist of minute solids, yet we do not perceive matter, or any of its phenomena, by these solids: besides, the simple consideration of the solids does not include the idea of the powers; the powers are the same whether the solids are there or not, and consequently the same effects are produced. I mention this to meet another objection, which your review has not noticed, but which has been strongly urged by some of my learned friends, who are well informed on philosophical subjects. They have strenuously contended that forces cannot act against each other without something to act on as a substratum. This cannot be proved, and before it is defended, it should be distinctly stated what the nature of force is, whether it is a substance, or a property, and if a property, a property of what. Doubtless in one way or other material forces emanate from the only source of power of all kinds, and we know not, in the slightest degree, of any intermediate being, whence they proceed: but that is called a substance, which exists independently of any created being; therefore, if we can call any thing without us a substance, this force is entitled to the appellation and we see the material universe, consisting of innumerable systems of forces, called into action originally by the Supreme Being, and still subsisting by His will and pleasure, by the word of his power. We know indeed little or nothing of force, except by its effects, and the known laws of its operation; yet in the face of the above objection, which I suppose has arisen from preconceived notions, the effects are such as at least to make it appear that the forces or powers, which we observe in the phenomena of matter, can act against each other without any intermedium. Thus dry air may be compressed, or expanded, by applying or removing a compressing force, so that it shall Occupy three thousand times more space in its rarefied, than in its condensed state; now this condensation would, evidently, be impossible, if the solid parts were previously in contact, therefore the atoms are kept at a distance by a force acting against 718 a force, without an intermediate substance; at least this seems to be the most obvious, and natural conclusion. Matter, whatever it is, existed from the beginning, and continues to exist, by an act of Almighty power; and the same may be said distinctly of force; and why may not: this force, so existing by the Creator's will, and power, and wisdom, constitute, and be, the very substance which we call matter, its real and simple essence? Such my physical theory makes it appear to be, for proof of which, see in the work the expla nations of nearly one thousand phenomena of the most difficult interpretation. It is not indeed pretended that the explanations are all perfect, or the best that can be offered; most of them will be found simple and natural, though many of them may be, and doubtless will be, much improved by the labours of others; I am continually more and more? satisfied that the foundation is correct This has resulted from my being in the habit of bringing the several phenomena, which I observe, to the test of the principles. I find them contradicted by none, and generally they present an explanation at once simple and complete. CORDANCES IN FACT BETWEEN THE MR. EDITOR. SIR,I cordially thank you for the oppor tunity which you afford to free discussion, › by your insertion of my last communica tion, col. 521, in which I have unequivo cally and unanswerably shewn that the velocity of a falling body is the true and exact quantity which necessarily results from the orbicular and rotatory motions of the earth, and of course, that such fall is the local effect of a local mechanical cause, and not the effect of any principle called universal gravitation, nor any proof of the existence of such principle. . I now proceed to exhibit some other accordances of the same mode of action with phenomena, and I might easily shew the exact accordance of it with all phenomena; but I intrude on you merely some Visit to the Pyramids. 719 The descending velocity, or weight, of OM RM bodies being as it varies as RM or OM, though they are constant or nearly so; and when they vary, it is together. In the case of the earth it is or 6096, as a general expression for the whole surface; for although in high latitudes 1524 varies, yet as the velocity of the equator is a measure of that of the whole earth, only when multiplied by 4; so when 1524 varies, it demands a different multiplier for the ratio of the areas. If any other circle were taken instead of the equatorial, then the multiple by 4 of the velocity in that circle, would not hold for the whole moving surface; because four times the area of such circle would not be the area of the whole moving surface. Consequently, 4 would vary as 1524, and the product 6096, or RM, would be constant; it is, therefore, a general expression for every portion of the earth's surface, which is part of a true mathematical sphere. Thus, if latitude 60 were taken, the velocity of rotation would be but half that at the equator, or 762 feet per second; but the rotatory momentum of the entire surface would be 762 × 86096 as before. If 1524 is, therefore, the true velocity of the equatorial circle, 6096 is a universal factor for every part of the terrestrial sphere. But if any portion is so varied in form, as not to accord with the multiple by 4, and is a little more, or a little less, then RM would vary, and bodies would fall with greater or less velocity; as is said to be the case at the protuberant equator, and the flattened poles, where the seconds' pendulum must be longer or shorter, (because then 4 is too little or too much,) according to the quantity of the departure from the motion which four times the area of the mean equatorial circle demands. Of course, in the internal parts of the earth, RM is less, because the velocity is as distance from the centre when at the equator, or from the axis when in latitudes; and then weight is as velocity or distance, compared with that at the surface; but every point is still acted upon by a function of RM, 3900 being to the distance from the centre, as 1524 is to the factor, which is to be multiplied by 4. Hence, bodies increase in weight inversely as the distance from the centre; and at the centre, when 1524 becomes 0, the force is the undivided, orbicular motion, but at 720 1950 miles distant, the weight, or tendency to the centre, is double that at the surface. The fall towards the centre in all places or positions is a necessary consequence of the totality of the action of the whole sphere being directed to the point in the greatest absolute motion in the centre, every single part being the patient of the action of the totality. R. PHILLIPS. Hyde Park Row, May 28, 1829. VISIT TO THE PYRAMIDS. Volume VI. (for 1824,) of the Imperial Magazine contains, a brief but interesting account of this stupendous monument of human art. Being founded, however, on a visit made about two hundred years before, ample room remains for the enlightened observations of a modern traveller, to whose researches we stand indebted for the following article :— THE next morning I ascended the great pyramid. The outside is formed of rough stones of a light yellow colour, which form unequal steps all round, from the bottom to the summit: these stones, or steps, are two, three, or four feet high, and the ascent is rather laborious, but perfectly free from danger, or any serious difficulty. What a boundless and extraordinary prospect opened from the summit! On one side, a fearful and melancholy desart, either level, or broken into wild and fantastic hills of sand and rocks; on the other, scenes of the utmost fertility and beauty marked the course of the Nile, that wound its way as far as the eye could reach into Upper Egypt; beneath, amidst the overflow of waters, appeared the numerous hamlets and groves, encircled like so many beautiful islets; and far in the distance was seen the smoke of Cairo, and its lofty minarets, with the dreary Mount Mokattam rising above. Who but would linger over such a scene; and, however wide he roamed, who would not feel hopeless of ever seeing it equalled? The height of the great pyramid is five hundred feet; its base about seven hundred feet long at each square, making a circumference of about three thousand feet; and its summit is twenty-eight feet square. It is perfectly true, as a celebrated traveller has observed, that you feel much disappointed at the first view of the pyramids: as they stand in the midst of a flat and boundless desart, and there is no elevation near, with which to contrast them, it is not easy to be aware of their real magnitude, -until, after repeated visits and observations, 721 The Sphynx Circassian Ladies. 722 About two or three hundred yards from the great pyramid is the sphynx, with the features and breasts of a woman, and the body of an animal; between the paws an altar was formerly held; but the face is much mutilated: its expression is evidently Nubian. This enormous figure is cut out of the solid rock, and is twenty-five or thirty feet in height, and about sixteen from the ear to the chin. The dimensions of the body cannot be ascertained, it being almost entirely covered with sand. The highest praise is due to M. Caviglia's indefatigable and body of the sphynx. This work emmarble. The few chambers hitherto disployed him and his Arabs during six weeks: covered bear no proportion whatever to the the labour was extreme, for the wind, which vast extent of the interior. So immensely had set in that direction, blew the sand strong is their fabric, and so little do they back again nearly as fast as they removed appear injured by the lapse of more than it: he is now proceeding to uncover the three thousand years, that one cannot help whole of the figure. Ibid, P. 1org 9 believing, when gazing at them, that their duration can only end with that of the oqs 999 550i inst worldo bamol et ehituo et bimehe 'deIRCASSIAN LADIES. 1979 707 The celebrated sarcophagus which Dr. The market at Cairo, or place where the Cafancifully supposed to have contained Circassian women may be purchased, canthe bones of Joseph, stands in the great not fail to be interesting, though at the chamber ait has been much injured by same time repulsive to a stranger's feelings. the various pieces struck off. The pyra- These unfortunate women, as we term them, mids of Cephrenes, the passage into which though it is a doubt if they think themselves Mr. Belzoni has opened, stands not far so, are bought originally of their parents, from that of Cheops, but cannot be who are generally peasants, by the Armeascended ob glodonstom has luteal nian and other merchants who travel through to The pyramids stand on a bed of rock, Georgia and Circassia. Their masters somea hundred and fifty feet above the desart, times procure them an education, as far as and this elevation contributes to their being music and singing go, give them handsome seen from so great a distance. On one clothes, and then sell them in private to the of the days of my stay here, the wind rich Turks, or bring them to the market at blewoso violently from morning to night, Cairo, where, however, the business is conthat the sand was raised, though not in ducted with tolerable decorum. The lady, clouds, yet in sufficient quantities to pene- veiled and habited as best becomes her trate every thing, and trender it difficult to figure, and placed in a separate apartment, stand against it :bmyo tent,lowhich was is attended by the merchant whose property pitched in the plain below, was blown she is, and may be seen by the person who down, and I was obliged to take up my wishes to become a purchaser. The veil is abode in the place of tombs. The large lifted, and the beauty stands exposed. This chamber excavated lino the rocky and in- is better, however, thans asTurkish wife, habited by Belzoni during his residence of who, on the bridal evening, for the first six months here, is close to the pyramid time perhaps, draws aside the shroud of her of Cephrenes; it is very commodious and charms, and throws herself into her bhuslofty, though excessively warm. 38 Oncenter- band's arms, when he may recoil swith ing the door, the only place through which horror from his own property, finding the the light is admitted, an immense number dazzling loveliness he had anticipated chang of bats rushed out against us. All the ed into a plain, yellow, and faded aspect. ruinous apartments and temples in this But the Georgian style of beauty is rich and country are peopled with theses animals, joyous and their dark eyes!there are no which Belzoni contrived to get rid of by eyes like them in the world. The stranger lighting large fires, the smoke of which soon then casts his sight over the figure the expelled them. Carne's Letters from the hand and foot; a small and delicate hand East, pad 16. sdi lo stews ed of yessis, with the Orientals, much valued even anoitev medo bine alien bateqor ofte litthemen are proud of possessing it. He 128.-VOL. XI. 3 A 723 Instability of Character, exemplified in the Connoisseur. demands the lady's accomplishments; if she sing, or is skilled in music,in this case the price is greatly enhanced: a thousand, or fifteen hundred pounds, are sometimes given for a very lovely woman so highly gifted. Ibid. p. 125.. INSTABILITY OF CHARACTER, EXEMPLIFIED IN THE CONNOISSEUR. In a literary society of the town of Acomposed almost entirely of the young of both sexes, was a gentleman who had obtained the appellation of Connoisseur. Whatever was discussed, whether publications, painting, or any subject "beneath the sun," he alone had the privilege of giving the final decision. Like the touchstone of true merit, all shrunk into less than nothingness at his approach. He was a little man, endowed with great vivacity. From a thick pair of bushy eye-brows, bright twinkling eyes took their quick but piercing glance. Judging by the smile that played on his upper lip, a general observer would have set him down as a pleasing, good-humoured companion. But from those lips, as from the cannon's mouth, were often poured the messengers of destruction. On friend or foe equally fell the battery of satire, or the cruelty of wit. He was not beloved; for though his expressions often excited the risible muscles, yet the smile was generally mingled with the apprehension of self-danger. The steps by which he gained the station he holds in society as a professed connoisseur, and a privileged wit, may be traced in a brief sketch. 1 ་་ He was the son of a wealthy gentleman in the neighbourhood; and, learning nothing at home, the father thought he could do no less than send him to college to finish his education. There he loitered out the few remaining years of his improvement, in the same spirit of idleness. Amid the sacred walks of learning he sauntered in ignorance, sighing for all the honours of fame. But as fame seemed to be tardy in coming to him, full of chagrin, he at length returned home. Here he determined to make a grand struggle for the acquirement of knowledge, but with the same confusion of research as before. First, he studied astronomy, and filled his mind with globes, circles, and poles. Each room was painted round with the twelve signs of the zodiac, and the ceilings were thickly studded with the constellations of the heavens. On the top of the house was built notice and calculate more observatory, to truly the situation 724 His whole time was spent in a deep conr templation of the theory of eclipses, till at length he was set down as astronomy mad. But happening unfortunately to catch cold from too great exposure to the night air, a fever was brought on, which, as it left him, took with it all his intense love of astronomy. Next came chemistry. The observatory was converted into a laboratory for the operations of some important analysis, or rather, by analyzation, to discover some unknown base. Drugs, bottles, and spiritlamps, succeeded the globes, and ranged the walls of his apartment. And though sir R. Phillips' doctrine of atoms, as he has owned, often puzzled him, he still continued his unwearied course. The whole day was spent either in producing some wonderful gas, or in admiring it. But an accidental combustion, that blew off the top of his laboratory, and nearly buried him in the ruins, effectually put a stop to his mania for chemistry. Soon after followed painting. A rare collection was obtained from every artist's gallery. Indeed, he formed some designs of making the tour of Europe, or at least of visiting Rome, for his beloved object. But he soon forbore, upon the prudent thought that "life is uncertain," and death in a foreign land, "within the pale" of another church, would not be desirable. His Guidos, Titians, and Raphaels were therefore procured for home inspection. It is never known how far he actually proceeded in this art. The only mementos of his own skill are two figures of his ancestors, ins entire armour, to whose heads he had given the covering of immense wigs, and in whose shoes he had placed buckles. However, none dispute his abilities, in pointing out, with amazing celerity, the peculiarities of every artist, ancient and modern. He could immediately discover to whom such an expression of countenance belonged, i such a delineation, or such a style, and was never behindhand in pointing out the de fects of all the paintings he ever beheld. What it was that gave a fresh turn to his extraordinary mind has never been known; but it is certain that about that time mines ralogy became his favourite pursuit, Pits and mines were dug in all parts of his estate. Miners were employed to explore the different strata of earth, and give their reports. They, with reasons best known to themselves, supported our discoverer in all his opinions. Pieces of leaden ore, from time to time, were affirmed to be dug out of the earth-yet the bed still remained at and movements of the celestial bodies. a great distance. At length, tired of a pur more |