327 The Architecture of the Dark Ages. necessity of each to resort to places of strength, that he might dwell secure from surprise or assault, and enjoy that portion of the earth which he had usurped. 328 power, who feasted on the luscious and the rare, to surfeiting ; in the lower stories, rioted. their retainers, if more vulgar, yet the counterparts of chiefs above, minions at The mode of warfare then in use was de- hand to execute their vengeance; instant at sultory and predatory; it often consisted in their word, on whoever incurred their fierce sudden incursion, with a view to plunder; | displeasure; while below, mid damps and and the barbarous manner in which it was darkness, groaned the captive, of comfort void conducted, led to massacres and violations and consolation; he heard aloft the festive of the innocent and unarmed; no age nor roar, and "the iron entered into his soul." sex was safe in the hands of the ruffians In whatever land a king bore sway, who were retainers to many of those feudal during this age of stone, his power was lords, while arms were in their hands, and | maintained by the erection and possession numbers gave them a momentary ascen- of a greater number of these fortresses than dancy. To be rich, was a seductive object were held by any of his chiefs, in order, for plunder; to be beautiful, was an incite- by this wide-spread power, to overawe ment to lust and ravishment; to be strong, these into the semblance of obedience, for was to court contest after contest, until the it was at best the semblance, rather than towering height was brought down to the the reality. general level; and to be wise and good, was to incur the insult and the hatred of all. Hence arose the necessity of strong holdsplaces of defence for the innocent, wise, and good, and places of retreat for the audacious and predatory hordes, who were, in this age, the scourges of every land. These retreats were massive walls around cities and towns, castles and forts, inaccessible situations, and walled stations, wherein animals, as well as mankind, could feed at large in security. The weapons in use were swords, spears, lances, battle-axes, and mauls, or clubs, &c.; and their artillery was bows and arrows. Against such weapons, a deep and wide ditch, with a steep scarp, and high and solid ashlar wall, crowned with a broad rampart and stout embattled parapet, were deemed the most substantial defences; and these walls, flanked with towers, pierced with loop-holes for artillery, or quarters for the lodgment and use of men at arms, were erected by every chief who longed to increase his power, as well as by every wise ruler, who was determined to hold what was his lawful patrimony; for barbarous force was the law of the age which called these edifices into existence. As detached goals possessed no security amidst the predatory manners of this age of stone, so stone was resorted to, in order to incarcerate in safe keeping, the sturdy prisoners brought in from these incursions; hence arose, in the most secure portion of these castles, a huge stone tower, named the keep, the base of which was a dungeon, wide and strong—a prison horrible; above, beneath, around, all solid ashlar, often devoid of air and light. In the middle stories of this huge tower, frequent was the festive board, where wine was quaffed from bowls by chieftains, high-flown with insolence of Frequently conspiracies and confederacies shook his throne; and in order to preserve the shadow of authority, he was obliged to connive at depredations which he durst not attempt to punish, and even give license to misrule, that, if not openly, secretly defied his power. Thus laws, human and divine, alike became null and void. The superstitious rites which, as substitutes for religion, were in universal use during this age of stone, called into existence their full share of these edifices of stone, as well as numbers framed of wood. The imposing processions and ceremonies of the Roman Catholic ritual, called for a corresponding awfulness in the form of the structures beneath whose roofs they were performed. Hence complicated arches and groins, clustered columns, screens dividing and subdividing, statuary, and carvings, stained glass, imaging the unreal with the real, between mullions and beneath segments on segments, piled so high as to become awful, were every where in request, and multiplied accordingly. Vast cathedrals, beneath whose exalted groins, and along whose extended aisles, the pageant procession marched, to the sound of pealing organs and oral melodies, producing an effect approaching the sublime, awed the vulgar into adoration, and even astounded superior genius, if not into participation, yet into acquiescence with this pompous unreal. In the intervals of columns, in the sequestered aisles, in the recesses of these structures, in fact, in every vacant part, altars were erected, that masses might be celebrated, and incense offered for the dead. Thus did the prolific doctrine of purgatory call forth the architect to erect pompous fabrics within these edifices of grandeur, as well as the priest to officiate thereat, for the 329 The Architecture of the Dark Ages. dead as well as for the living; and chapels to saints, and shrines also containing relics, were added from generation to generation. But edifices of another description were also called into existence by the superstitions of this age, Multitudes of women, as well as men, coveted to live in communities, secluded from the world, fancying that their mortifications and prayers would be works of supererogation, to be distributed to their fellow-mortals at pleasure, as passports to mansions in the skies. From this predilection, arose monasteries, abbeys, priories, nunneries, &c. &c.-so many stately edifices, calculated to contain scores, and even hundreds, of these religious in community, with all their attendants. These establishments included vestibules, halls, dormitories, cells, chapels, and, in many instances, cathedrals of vast dimensions, with cloisters and courts; and not unfrequently with solid ashlar walls, surrounding a vast area, flanked with towers, and crowned with ramparts and embattled parapets, for other than celestial warfare, where many a mitred abbot displayed the cross, not only as the emblem of peace, but as the ensign of war, and bade defiance to the hostile chiefs around. Thus not only did the works of supererogation, by their indiscriminate sale to conscious sinners, but the masses for the dead, furnish funds for the erection and support of these fabrics. Can we wonder that architecture flourished during this age of stone, when we reflect how necessary a person the architect must then be on all occasions? Man is man in every age of time, and in no one age is he more a man than another; it is only needful to call, and straight comes his genius forth in all its genuine fulness. That mighty thing, which we denominate mind, which renders man so eminently superior to every creature that he beholds around him, may be, and often, alas, is latent beneath ungenial circumstances; but no sooner do these circumstances change, and the genial warmth of spring visit his frozen genius, than he springs into new life, and vigorously pursues his way. All the wealth, all the power, all the honours of that age, were lavished upon these structures, during that long and dreary period of darkness, and ambition found its centre there; the architect was in incessant request, and therefore his genius was furbished and shone forth in his works, not only amidst his own, | but to after-ages. In fact, he was greatly needed, must have been highly rewarded, and often honoured; and these called forth men of talent from the multitude, who exercised their eminent abilities therein. 330 In a village containing four hundred inhabitants, there is frequently not a single house in existence, but such as an ordinary country carpenter and mason would erect with ease, without a single lesson from an architect; but if you collect these four hundred persons into one community, and lodge them in a single fabric, you instantly call superior mind to your aid, in order so to dispose the rooms and offices, that this community shall be lodged, recreated, exercised, and fed with freedom. And this is also the case, where you wish to erect a building, which shall at once detain in safe keeping the prisoners within its walls, and effectually exclude the warriors who assault it from without; and if, in addition to these, it must minister, not only to the convenience and comfort of its owners, but to their lusts for pageantry and grandeur, art of the most refined description must design and execute the fabrics. That such art planned and erected these edifices, we are convinced by the testimony of our senses at this day. No age gave birth to bolder conceptions, and more masterly executions, of trusses, groins, segments, clustered columns, pinnacles, towers, spires, &c. than this; and no age has transmitted to us so many examples of architectural worth. But if we inherit the fabrics, we also inherit their incongruities. In order to render these fortresses difficult of access, the most romantic situations were preferred for their sites, and every avenue around them was straitened to the utmost by art, so that the approaches thereto might be as difficult as possible; thus was surprise prevented, and assault restrained: but we, who are the successors to this age of stone, have established an age of commerce. What labour, then, has fallen to our lot, in rendering spacious and commodious these elevated and straitened places, in order to afford to our commerce freedom and convenience! In those fabrics which superstition called forth, ultimately there arose a similar incongruity, viz. an excess of architecture, loading and deforming all their parts; we hail, however, a revolution of the age of superstition, into an age of real devotion. This age, beholding this excess with disgust, has removed in part the incongruous, and nearly restored many of these fabrics to their pristine grandeur; and partial ruin in others has effected the selfsame thing. There is a dignity in simplicity, at which no complication, however artfully arranged, can arrive, much less surpass. When every space between the columns, at the ends of the aisles, and the recesses and spaces in all directions, were crowded with projecting altars and shrines, and even with chapels, each loaded with florid ornaments, these fabrics within the fabric, however elegant in themselves, confused the effect, leaving to the eye no prominent object whereon to dwell, and, like repletion on the palate, induced disgust; yea, such is the spectacle presented by a Roman Catholic cathedral at the present hour. The cathedrals and churches which are occupied by Protestants, being partly stript of these incumbrances, present a more chaste outline, and approach their ancient grandeur; but it is in the partial ruin of one of these fabrics, that we behold the ancient grandeur of this order of architecture in perfection; there, stript of every extraneous projection, the pristine sublimity of the vast outline strikes the beholder with awe, and induces those feelings of veneration, which so highly delight an intelligent mind. (To be continued.) YALOFF MAGNANIMITY. THE Yaloffs, Jalofs, or Jalloffs, are an active, powerful, and warlike race of negroes, and esteemed the most handsome of those people, who inhabit a great part of that tract of Africa, which lies between the Mandingo states, on the river Gambia, to the south, and the Senegal, to the north and east. The Yaloffs differ from the Mandingoes, not only in language, but likewise in complexion and features. Their noses are not so much depressed, nor the lips so protuberant, as among the generality of Africans; and although their skin is of the deepest black, they are considered by the white traders as the most sightly negroes in this part of the continent. They are divided into several independent states or kingdoms; which are frequently at war either with their neighbours, or with one another. In their manners, superstitions, and government, however, they have a greater resemblance to the Mandingoes, than to any other nation; but excel them in the manufacture of cotton cloth, spinning the wool to a finer thread, weaving it in a broader loom, and dyeing it of a better colour. Their language is said to be copious and significant, and is often learned by Europeans trading to Senegal. Their Numerals are as follows: One-Ween Two-Yar Three-Yat Four-Yanet Five-Judom Six-Judom Ween Seven-Judom Yar Eight-Judom Yat Nine-Judom Yanet Ten-Fook Eleven-Fooking Ween, &c. Park's Travels, vol. i, 332 In connection with this brief account of the Yaloffs, we cannot forbear mentioning an anecdote that redounds very much to the honour of Damel, their king. On occasion of a war between Damel and Abdulkader, king of Foota Torra, a country to the west of Bondou, the latter, inflamed wifh zeal for propagating his religion, sent an ambassador to Damel, accompanied by two of the principal Bashreens, who carried each a knife, fixed on the top of a long pole. When they obtained admission into the presence of Damel, they announced the object of their embassy in the following singular manner:-"With this knife, (said the ambassador,) Abdulkader will condescend to shave the head of Damel, if Damel will embrace the Mahometan faith; and with this other knife, Abdulkader will cut the throat of Damel, if Damel refuse to embrace it-take your choice." Damel coolly replied, that he had no choice to make; he neither chose to have his head shaved, nor his throat cut: and with this answer the ambassador was civilly dismissed. Abdulkader with a powerful army invaded Damel's country. The inhabitants of the towns and villages filled up their wells, destroyed their provisions, carried off their effects, and abandoned their dwellings as he approached. Thus he was led on from place to place, until he had advanced three days' journey into the country of the Yaloffs. Several of his men had died with fatigue and hunger by the way. This led him to direct his march to a watering-place in the woods, where his men, having allayed their thirst, lay down, overcome with fatigue, to sleep among the bushes. In this situation, they were attacked by Damel before day-break, and completely routed. Many were killed, and a great number taken prisoners. Among the latter was Abdulkader himself, who was led, as a miserable captive, into the presence of Damel. The behaviour of Damel on this occasion is celebrated, in terms and sounds of the highest approbation, by the singing men. When his royal prisoner was brought before him in irons, and thrown upon the ground, the magnanimous Damel, instead of setting his foot upon his neck, and stabbing him with his spear, according to the custom in such cases, addressed him in the following manner;- "Abdulkader, answer me this question. If the chance of war had placed me in your situation, and you in mine, how would you have treated me?" "I would have thrust my spear into your heart," returned Abdulkader with great firmness; "and I know that a similar fate awaits me.' Not, so," 333 Osseous System-Essay VII. deed red with the blood of your subjects killed in battle, and I could now give it a deeper stain by dipping it in your own; but this would not build up my towns, nor bring to life the thousands who fell in the woods. I will not therefore kill you in cold blood; but I will retain you as my slave, until I perceive that your presence in your own kingdom will be no longer dangerous to your neighbours; and then I will consider of the proper way of disposing of you." Abdulkader was accordingly retained, and worked as a slave for three months; at the end of which period, Damel listened to the solicitations of the inhabitants of Foota Torra, and restored to them their king. 334 surface presents a considerable degree of convexity, having the inferior, to a certain extent, concave. To the four last bones of the tarsus, (viz. the os cuboides, and three cuneiformia,) are attached those of the metatarsus, in number five in each foot, and similar in shape to those of the hand, although larger, and supporting the bones of the toes. These are fourteen in each foot, there being in the great toe only two, and in each of the rest three, as in the fingers; whereas in the hand, the thumb is formed of three bones, but, then, it is not connected to the carpus by an intervening metacarpal bone, of which it is deficient. If the bones of the tarsus and metatarsus are larger and stronger than those of the carpus and metacarpus, on the other hand, those of the toes are much smaller and ESSAYS ON THE STRUCTURE AND ME- shorter than those of the fingers; hence it CHANISM OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. (Continued from col. 234.) ESSAY VII. HAVING enumerated, in our preceding essay, the bones of the hand and arm, let us next attend to those of the inferior extremities. Of the thigh-bone, or femur, and its articulations at the hip and knee, with the protecting patilla, we have already spoken; the bones of the leg, consisting of the tibia and fibula, have also been noticed; but it remains that we should examine the foot, and survey the arrangement of the bones which form it. The feet, although bearing a general similarity of outline to the hands, are not formed in man for grasping or retaining, but for progression only, and they exhibit, consequently, a peculiar difference in the arrangement of their osseous structure. As, however, the hand is divided into carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges, or the fingerbones, so the foot is divided into the tarsus or instep, the metatarsus, and the phalanges, or digites pedis. The bones of the tarsus are seven, differing greatly in size and shape, yet all irregular and indefinite; the first is the astragalus. By this bone the foot is united to the tibia and fibula, the articulation is hinge-like, and secured in a manner especially firm, by numerous and powerful ligaments. The next is the os calcis, or heel-bone, which is united to the astragalus; then comes the os scaphoides, or naviculare; the fourth, fifth, and sixth are termed ossa cuneiformia; the seventh, the os cuboides. These bones, conjoined to each other upon mutual articulating surfaces, and bound together by ligaments, constitute the tarsus, which on the upper is impossible that they should possess that pliability, that address and precision, with which the fingers are so beautifully gifted. Besides, there is no thumb to exert its antagonizing action, but the whole is constructed for bearing the weight of the body with a firm and even pressure on the ground, and so adapted for the purposes of walking, running, and leaping. In these modes of progression, the toes (and especially the great toe) are accordingly in greater or less requisition, and called to a corresponding service. For example; in the attitude of standing erect, the sole of the foot, and the toes, all press the ground evenly and firmly; but in walking we first place the sole firmly down, then rise upon the toes of that foot, elevating the heel, bending them back at their articulations with the metatarsal bones, so as to rest upon them and the ends of these bones the weight of the body, while the other foot is thrown out for the next step. In leaping, which is produced by a vigorous and sudden extension of the limbs, as well as in running, in which the heel is kept elevated, so as not to touch, or but very slightly touch, the ground, it is upon the toes almost solely that the body bears, and from which it springs forwards. Weak therefore, and unendowed with address, as the toes may seem, we find them notwithstanding of high importance in the most necessary purposes of life; and contributing their part to the well-being of the whole. Having thus sketched an outline of the mechanism of the bones which form the hands and feet in the human subject, let us glance at the comparative similarity or difference which these organs exhibit in the lower orders of the animal creation; the object is curious: passing along the chain from 339 Early Manuscripts and Editions of the Bible. denotes the habits to be aquatic ;-the neck, the back, and the whole configuration, are constructed accordingly; and thus, throughout the range of creation, contrivance and wisdom are manifest. But it is time that we proceed to another part of our subject;—and in pursuance of our plan, the skull next demands our attention. We have already stated the skull and vertebral column to be the principal parts of the skeleton; for in all red-blooded animals they constitute a requisite in their organization. The skull, both with regard to its structure, and the important organs it encloses and protects, is by far the most interesting part of the skeleton, which can be offered | to our consideration. We have reserved it for the last topic of our essays, and if its interest restrain us from a speedy close, we trust our readers will grant us their indulgence. The head is divided into two portions, viz. the face, and the skull or cranium.For although, when speaking, in general terms, of the skull, the bones of the whole head are usually intended,-yet, strictly speaking, the word applies to that portion only by which the brain is immediately enclosed and defended. W. MARTIN, Hammersmith. (To be continued.) EARLY MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS OF THE most ancient and most valuable book 340 The Old Testament was first written in Hebrew, and afterwards translated into Greek about 275 years before the birth of Christ, by 72 Jews, by order of Ptolemeus Philadelphus, king of Egypt. The precise number of the Hebrew manuscripts of the Old Testament is unknown; those written before the years 700 or 800 it is supposed were destroyed by some decree of the Jewish senate, on account of their numerous differences from the copies then declared genuine. Those which exist in the present day were all written between the years 1000 and 1457. The manner in which these MSS. were written, is rather interesting. In the first place, then, the inspired language has been written upon various substances-leaves, skins, vellum, paper, &c. and it is even probable that several of the prophets wrote upon tablets of wood. (See Isaiah xxx. 8.) Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist, when required to name his son, asked for a writing-table, and wrote "His name is John." (Luke i. 63.) In the reign of the emperor Zeno, (485,) the remains of St. Barnabas were found near Salamis, with a Copy of the Gospel of St. Matthew, in Hebrew, laid upon his breast, written with his own hand, upon leaves of thyine-wood; a kind of wood particularly odoriferous and valuable. In the library of St. Mary, at Florence, is the whole New Testament on silk, with the Liturgy, and short Martyrology; at the end of it there is written in Greek, "By the hand of the sinner and most unworthy mark; in the year of the World, 6840, (that is, of Christ, 1332,) Monday, Dec. the 22nd."* Some of the Greek MSS. were written all in capital letters; the small letters not being generally adopted until the close of the 10th century. Numerous curious abbreviations also existed in them; the first and last letters, and sometimes with the middle letter of a word only appearing, and the words not being separated. The following literal rendering of Matth. v. 1, 3. according to the Codex Bezæ, or Cambridge MSS. of the Four Gospels and Acts, will convey to the reader some idea of the manner in which manuscripts were anciently written and printed :— ANDSEEINGTHEMULTITUDES HEWENTUPINTOAMOUNTAIN ANDWHENHEWASSETDOWN'CAMETOHIM HISDISCIPLES ANDOPENINGHISMOUTH HETAUGHTTHEMSAYING BLESSEDARETHEPOORINSPTT FORTHEIRSIS THEKINGDOMOFHEAVEN. * Townley's Illustration of Biblical Literature. + SPT, is contracted for spirit. |