specified; for (enim 1. 77) flax, oats, or poppies only exhaust the soil (urunt), and the land might as well lie fallow as have them. novales, either 'fields'in general, as in Ecl. i. 71, or proleptically with cessare = 'lie idle and fallow.' But cessare gives this meaning by itself: and (as shown above) Virgil seems to be prescribing for corn-land in general by (1) occasional fallowing, (2) change of crops. situ (verbal subst. from sino, 'to let alone '), the 'inaction' or idleness of fallow land, as opposed to the condition of land being prepared for a crop. Cp. Aen. vi. 462, vii. 440 (of the rustiness coming from disuse); Hor. Epp. ii. 2. 118.

75. tristis, bitter,' cp. ii. 126.

76. fragiles, 'crackling,' cp. Ecl. viii. 82. silvam, of any thick growth, cp. G. i. 152, ii. 17, iv. 273, Aen. iii. 24.

79. alternis, sc. 'vicibus,' as in 1. 71 = 'by changes (of crops) the strain (of producing two crops in succession without an interval of fallow) is lightened;' only you must not spare manure.

82. sic quoque.

By this method as well (as by fallowing), the soil gets rest under the change of crops; nor are you meanwhile without return from your land being unploughed '—i.e. you get your crop of vetch, etc. inaratae = ὡς μὴ ἀροτρουμένης.

86. steriles, 'now barren,' i. e. with nothing but stubble left, the burning of which is advantageous in different ways to different kinds of soil (11. 86–91).

89-93. caeca relaxat spiramenta, 'opens hidden pores.' qua, sc. 'via.' durat, sc. 'terram.' venas, 'passages or channels.' tenues, 'thin,' 'fine,' and so 'searching' rains. rapidi solis, 'the fierce burning sun,' cp. Ecl. ii. 10. penetrabile, in active sense 'piercing,' cp. Lucr. i. 494 'penetrale frigus;' and for similar use of forms in '-bilis,' Hor. Od. i. 3. 22 'Oceano dissociabili,' etc.

95, 96. vimineas crates, 'osier hurdles,' dragged over the ground after the clods had been broken with the 'rastrum' (a hoe or rake). The whole process was called 'occatio' (‘occare' Hor. Epp. ii. 2. 161). nequiquam, (not nequidquam' or 'nequicquam') is the form in all best MSS. and editions. It is from 'quiquam' the old abl., cp. 'nequaquam.'

97-99. The process of cross-ploughing' is here distinguished from that of harrowing, as if they were not applied by the same person or to the same land: but Virgil does not mean to do more than distinguish between them. He has not necessarily implied cross-ploughing in 1. 48. proscisso, technical term for the first breaking up with the plough, cp Plaut. Trin. ii. 4. 122 (quoted on G. ii. 403). terga, the 'ridges' of clods thrown up by the plough, G. ii. 236. in obliquum verso aratro, by cross-ploughing,' lit. 'with plough turned at right angles (to its former course).' imperat, 'lords it over' the fields, i. e. forces them to own his rule. This and other expressions ('subigere,' 'compescere' G. ii. 370, 'vertere,' 'exercere'), applied to agricultural operations, illustrate the conception of a constant struggle against the reluctant forces of Nature, which Virgil derives from Lucretius. Cp. G. i. 197, ii. 237; Lucr. v. 206-217; and see Sellar, 'Virgil,' ch. VI. ii. (pp. 205-212).

102. Mysia, especially the region about Gargarus, was proverbial for fertility. nullo tantum cultu, 'by no tillage does Mysia show itself off

so well or Gargarus take such pride in its harvests (as after a dry winter) :' so Heyne, Con., Kennedy. Others explain, 'Mysia itself is not so fertile as an ordinary field after a dry winter' (Wagn., Forb.); or, 'it is from no cultivation (but natural climate) that Mysia is so fertile.'

104, 105. comminus, see above on 1. 99. The image is that of the Roman soldier first throwing his ‘pilum' (iacto semine), and then attacking at close quarters. ruit, 'levels,' 'throws down,' as Aen. ix. 516: elsewhere (as G. ii. 308, Aen. i. 35. 85, xi. 211; Hor. Sat. ii. 5. 22 ruam acervos,') it = 'throw up :' so in legal phrase 'ruta caesa' = minerals (things dug up) and timber. The general idea is violent movement, the direction of which is determined by the context. So 'ruo,' intransitive = 'go down,' Aen. iii. 508; come up,' Aen. x. 256. cumulos, i. e. the tops of the ridges. male pinguis='non pinguis,' 'unfertile,' cp. 'male fida' Aen. ii. 23, ‘male amicum' ib. 735, 'male sana' Aen. iv. 8. Others explain nimium pinguis, too stiff' soil, cp. 'male oderit' Cic. Att. xiv. 1. 2, 'male rauci' Hor. Sat. i. 4. 66; but then harenae must be taken in an unusual sense; and in the following lines light dry ground requiring irrigation is spoken of.

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108. supercilio clivosi tramitis, from the brow of a sloping ravine:' cp. the Virgilian expressions 'dorso nemoris' G. iii. 436 (also in Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 91), 'latus nemoris' Aen. vii. 566, and Hom. Il. xx. 151 oi & ἑτέρωσε καθῖζον ἐπ' ὀφρύσι Καλλικολώνης. Prudentius (born 348 A.D.) has the phrase 'supercilio saxi liquor ortus' (Peristeph. xii. 31). tramitis, according to Servius, = 'convallis,' cp. Aen. xi. 515; Prop. iv. 22. 23 (ed. Paley) Hinc Anio Tiburne fluis, Clitumnus ab Umbro tramite;' and Cic. Phil. xii. 11 ‘facilis est circumspectus unde exeam, quo progrediar, quid ad dextram, quid ad sinistram sit. Num idem in Apennini tramitibus facere potero?' Con. explains clivosi tramitis as ='clivi per quem unda tramitem facit,' 'the channelled slope;' Kenn. as ='transversi clivi,' 'a cross-lying slope.' The picturesque force of ecce ('Oh joy!') is well pointed out by Con.; and the melodious grace of 11. 108-110 harmonises with their subject. Cp. Hom. Il. xxi. 257 sqq.

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III-115. quid, sc. 'dicam,' as 1. 104. Excessive luxuriance is to be corrected by feeding down when the blade is young and green (tenera in herba, abl. of circumstance='quum sit herba tenera '), lest when come to maturity the corn stalks should droop under the weight of the ears. cum primum, etc. defines tenera in herba more precisely. Con. explains, 'as soon as the young plants reach the level of the ridges:' (but can sulcos the ridges between the furrows? Better (as giving to 'sulcos' its true meaning) 'level the furrows'-i. e. by rising to the height of the ridge or 'balk' make the whole field look level, the furrows being filled up. bibula deducit harena, 'drains off by means of soaking sand;' how, is not clear. Con. thinks the drains were partly filled with sand or gravel; Kenn. that sand was carted to the places where water had collected and formed pools ('lacunae ') in order to soak up the water. incertis, 'unsettled,' i. e. when the weather is uncertain. Pindar (Isthm. iv. 30) calls the winter months ποικίλοι ; Ovid (Met. i. 117) those of autumn 'inaequales :' cp. A. Am. ii. 318 'Quum modo frigoribus premitur, modo solvitur aestu, Aere non certo;' and Lucr. iv. 49 'incertus aer.'

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119, 120. improbus, 'persistent,' 'insatiable,' cp. below 1. 388, Aen. xii. 687. As 'probus' denotes moderation and propriety, 'im-probus' denotes excess (iii. 431), unscrupulousness and the like, either with or without the idea of moral wrong. In G. i. 146, for example, and Aen. xi. 767 it simply =‘pervicax,' ́ persevering,' cp. Mart. xii. 18. 13 ‘improbo somno Quem non tertia saepe vincit hora.' The general meaning of 'bad' takes different shades according to the context-'unjust,' 'bold,' 'impudent,' 'shameless,' 'violent,' 'fierce,'' ravenous,' etc.; see Lexicons. Strymoniae, see note to Ecl. i. 55. intiba, see on iv. 120.

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122, 123. per artem, an adverbial expression like' per scelus' Aen. v. 793, 'per tacitum' Aen. ix. 31 (where see note). The words primusque . agros (in prose language) 'introduced scientific agriculture.' corda, 'wits;' cp. Plaut. Mil. Gl. ii. 3. 65 quidquam sapere corde,' Lucr. v. 1106 ‘Ingenio qui praestabant et corde vigebant,' Cic. Phil. iii. 6. 16 ' stupor cordis.' In Tusc. i. 9. 18 (quoted by Con.) Cicero notes the use of 'cor' for the intellect as something archaic.

125-159. Labour and the cultivation of the soil introduced by Jupiter and Ceres in the 'silver age.'

122-127. ante Jovem, i.e. in the golden age of 'Saturn's reign,' cp. Ecl. iv. limite, Ecl. i. 54, Aen. xii. 897. in medium quaerebant, 'they garnered for the common store,' had all things in common; cp. G. iv. 157.

131-135. mella, cp. Ecl. iv. 30, G. iv. I. usus, 'experience,' Ecl. ii. 71, note, G. ii. 22. meditando, 'by practice,' Ecl. i. 2. abstrusum,

thrust away' by Jupiter, cp. 1. 131.

136-140. alnos, 'as growing on the river banks (Ecl. vi. 63), and thus suggesting the experiment' (Con.). numeros et nomina fecit, zeugma. Con. illustrates the thought by Psalm cxlvii. 4. inventum, sc. 'est:' the subj. is captare et fallere.

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141, 142. funda, elsewhere a 'sling' (σpevdóvn), must in this context a casting-net,' which Plautus (Asin. i. 1. 86, Truc. i. I. 14) calls 'rete iaculum.' alta petens, best taken with the previous line. The fisher throws his casting-net as deep as he can, Kenn. takes alta petens pelagoque, 'seeking the deep and out at sea;' cp. G. iii. 238. verberat, as we now say that a fly-fisher 'flogs' the stream.

143–146. ferri rigor, so Lucr. i. 492 ‘rigor auri solvitur aestu.' improbus, 'persistent,' see on 1. 119.

148, 149. glandes, etc. is subject of deficerent='failed.' silvae, either possess. gen. after glandes atque arbuta, or dat. of indirect object. Dodona, cp. Ecl. ix. 13, G. i. 8.

150-153. labor additus, Con. translates, 'soon the wheat had plagues of its own,' referring to 1. 79 for ‘labor, of the sufferings of things inanimate.' But the whole context refers to human labour (cp. 145, 147, 155): when acorns failed, men had to till the ground (ll. 147-149); and then agriculture involved additional work (ll. 150 sqq.). ut...horreret, a substantival sentence, explaining labor additus. Soon corn-crops too had toil and trouble attached to them in such sort that baleful mildew devoured the stalks,' etc. The difficulties of agriculture are such that men must work, or else relapse

into barbarism and a diet of acorns (l. 159). silva, a growth of weeds, cp. 1. 79 above. nitentia, 'smiling;' always of outward appearance, 'neat,' 'sleek,' etc.

158. Virgil adopts the language and rhythm of Lucretius, ii. 2 magnum alterius spectare laborem,' in a different connection-see note to Ecl. x. 54.

160-166. arma, like Gk. onλa, 'implements,' cp. Aen. i. 177. But the military sense is present to Virgil's mind, i. e. the arms with which the 'duri agrestes' must fight their battle against the powers of Nature: see note to 1. 99. tarda, virtually adverbial, 'slow rolling,' cp. Ecl. viii. 96, G. ii. 377, iii. 28, iv. 370, and note to Aen. i. 8. Eleusinae matris, Anμýtnp, Ceres. tribula and traheae (or 'trahae') were two kinds of threshing. boards' or 'drays,' weighted and roughened with nails, and dragged over the corn on the floor. "The "tribulum” (“ trebbio " Ital., "trillo " Span.) is still used in the East, in Spain, and in the south of Italy' (Keightley). Celeus, father of Triptolemus (above 1. 19), to whom are ascribed all 'cheap wicker furniture' of antique use, including baskets, bush-harrows (arboreas crates), and the winnowing-fan (mystica, as carried in the processions at the Eleusinian mysteries). Iacchi, son of Ceres, confused with Bacchus, Ecl. vi. 15, vii. 51.

168. If the due blessing of the divine country is in store for you.' divini, as having praesentia numina 1. 10. digna, cp. G. i. 507, Aen. i. 600.

169-172. continuo in silvis, 'while yet in the woods.' burim, 'plough-beam' (yúŋs). It was a piece of strong wood, naturally or artificially curved, forming the body of the plough (hence called 'curvi'). From its foot (ab stirpe, at one end) projected the pole (temo, iσroßoeús), to which was attached the yoke' (iugum, (vyóv), fitting on the necks of the oxen, and fastened to them by 'lora subiugia.' dentalia, usually in sing. 'dentale,' the 'share-beam' (ễλvμa), a piece of wood fastened horizontally to the lower part of the 'buris,' in order to hold the 'share' ('vomer'). The expression duplici dorso seems to imply that it was formed of two pieces of wood, fastened one on each side of the 'buris,' and converging to a point below it so as to hold the 'vomer:' and this might account for the plural dentalia, which otherwise must be a mere poetic licence. binae aures, two mould boards,' one on each side of the dentale' (perhaps fastened to the two pieces of which it is composed), to throw the earth aside and widen the furrow.

174, 175. stivaque, by hendiadys with fagus, a tall beech for the handle' (Exérλn), by which the ploughman guided his plough. For the poetical redundance of expression implied by hendiadys see Con. on G. ii. 192. The correction 'stivae'='for a handle,' accepted by Heyne, Voss, etc., gives good sense; but, besides wanting any MS. authority, is open to the objection that it introduces, without any reason in the sense of the passage, a rather unusual rhythm; see note to Ecl. v. 21. Another interpretation, retaining 'stivaque,' connects altaque fagus with the preceding words-' a light linden or (que ve) tall beech is cut down for the yoke.' currus [Ribb. from Med., Rom., Gud. b, c, and Pal. 2nd—Vat. wanting], of the plough in

motion, as if it were a kind of carriage. Con.'s text has 'cursus' [Wagner from two Paris MSS.], but his note implies 'currus.' Ribbeck transposes 11. 173, 174. explorat, searches out,' seasons.'

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178-180. area, the threshing-floor.' This appears from Cato and Varro to have been an open elevated space, circular in form. and slightly sloping from the centre to the circumference, and usually floored with a compost of which 'argilla' or white clay (here called creta) was a principal ingredient. subeant, 'spring up' (from the soil below the floor): pulvere victa fatiscat, 'break and crumble into dust.' The floor is victa, not by dust from elsewhere getting into it, but by its own crumbling. pulvere is modal abl. with fatiscat, cp. Aen. i. 123, iii. 46; and victa goes with the verb, cp. 'fessa fatisci' Lucr. v. 308, aevo fessa fatisci' ib. iii. 458.

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181–186. illudant, ‘may play their pranks' (Pal. 2, Med., Ver., fragm., etc.), is now generally preferred to the old reading 'illudunt.' oculis capti, 'blind,' lit. ' injured in the eyes.' Cp. Lucr. v. 927 Nec facile ex aestu nec frigore quod caperetur,' Liv. xxii. 2 ‘Hannibal altero oculo capitur,' Aen. vii. 295. monstra, 'strange creatures,' without reference to size. senectae is explained as 'winter,' the ant as it were living for only one year: but is not inopi metuens senectae only a poetical expression for 'hoarding,' 'laying up store?'

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187-189. contemplator, a Lucretian formula of transition (e. g. ii. 114). 'Mark too, when many a walnut tree in the woods shall burst into blossom and bend its fragrant boughs: if the bulk of them turn to fruit, grain will follow in like proportion. . . . but if a luxuriant growth of leaves gives over-abundant shade, in vain will your threshing-floor grind the ears rich only in chaff (pingues palea).' The walnut tree is an omen for the crops. induet, lit. 'put itself into flower,' and so 'clothe itself with.' Cp. Aen. vii. 20, x. 681; Cic. Verr. ii. 42 'induere se in laqueum.' superant, i. e. if the majority of blossoms 'set' for fruit.

193-196. semina, of leguminous plants, as appears from 1. 195. et quamvis, etc., and that they might boil quickly, though with little fire' madere 'to be sodden,' Plaut. Men. ii. 2. 51, Pers. i. 3. 12; cp. Juv. xiii. 85 Pharioque madentis aceto.'

198. vis humana, 'the force of man,' is from Lucr. v. 206, referred to on 1. 99 above, as illustrating Virgil's conception of man's struggle against Nature.

200. Almost repeated Aen. ii. 169. ruere, referri, historic infinitives. For the pleonasm retro referri = 'retrograde' cp. Lucr. i. 785 'retro reverti,' ii. 283 retro residit.'

201-203. If we regard the comparison as between the seed and the man retro sublapsus refertur must be supplied after 'non aliter quam' (so Con. and most edd.): if 'between the seed which retrogrades when man does not select, and the boat which retrogrades when man does not pull' (Kenn.), all that need be supplied is 'fit.' The only difficulty lies in 1. 203: (1) is atque = 'statim' (as Aul. Gellius and other old commentators explain), and the clause an apodosis to si . . . remisit: or is atque' a conjunction, connecting 'remisit' and 'rapit' (Con. and most later edd.)? (2) is alveus 'the boat' (as Aen. vi. 412), or 'the river' (as Aen. vii. 33,