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in his eighty-first year he began to write the Weltgeschichte | has been influenced. His classicism led to his great limitations (9 vols., Leipzig, 1883-88). Drawing on the knowledge ac- as an historian. He did not deal with the history of the people, cumulated during sixty years, he had brought it down to with economic or social problems-the dignity of history was the end of the 15th century before his death in Berlin on the to him a reality. He belonged to the school of Thucydides and 23rd of May 1886. Gibbon, not to that of Macaulay and Taine; he deals by preRanke's other writings include Zur deutschen Geschichte. ference with the rulers and leaders of the world, and he strictly Vom Religionsfrieden bis zum 30 jährigen Kriege (Leipzig, 1868); limits his field to the history of the state, or, as we should say, Geschichte Wallensteins (Leipzig, 1869; 5th ed., 1896); Abhand-political history; and in this he is followed by Seeley, one of lungen und Versuche (Leipzig, 1877; a new collection of these the greatest of his adherents. The leader of modern historians, writings was edited by A. Dove and T. Wiedemann, Leipzig, he was in truth a man of the ancien régime. 1888); Aus dem Briefwechsel Friedrich Wilhelms IV. mit Bunsen (Leipzig, 1873); Die deutschen Mächte und der Fürstenbund. Deutsche Geschichte 1780-90 (1871-72); Historischbiographische Studien (Leipzig, 1878); Ursprung und Beginn der Revolutionskriege 1791-92 (Leipzig, 1875); and Zur Geschichte von Oesterreich und Preussen zwischen den Friedensschlüssen zu Aachen und Hubertusberg (Leipzig, 1875). He also wrote biographies of Frederick the Great and Frederick William IV. for the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.

Ranke married, at Windermere, in 1843, Miss Clara Graves, daughter of an Irish barrister. She died in 1870, leaving two sons and one daughter.

Many of Ranke's works have been translated into English. Among these are Civil Wars and Monarchy in France, by M. A. Garvey (1852); History of England, principally in the 17th Century (Oxford, 1875); History of the Latin and Teutonic Nations, 1494-1514, by of the Reformation in Germany, by S. Austin (1845-47); History of P. A. Ashworth (1887) and again by S. R. Dennis (1909); History Servia and the Servian Revolution, by Mrs A. Kerr (1847): Fer. dinand I. and Maximilian II. of Austria; State of Germany after the Reformation, by Lady Duff Gordon (1853); Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg and History of Prussia during the 17th and 18th Centuries, by Sir Alexander and Lady Duff Gordon (1849); and History of the Popes during the 16th and 17th Centuries, by S. Austin (1840; new eds., 1841 and 1847), by W. K. Kelly (1843), and by E. Foster (1847-53). A collected edition of Ranke's works in fifty-four the Weltgeschichte. volumes was issued at Leipzig (1868-90) but this does not contain

For details of Ranke's life and work see his own Zur eigenen Lebensgeschichte, edited by A. Dove (Leipzig, 1890); and the article by Dove in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie. Also Winckler, Leopold von Ranke. Lichtstrahlen aus seinen Werken (Berlin, 1885); W. von Giesebrecht, Gedächtnisrede auf Leopold von Ranke (Munich, 1887); Guglia, Leopold von Rankes Leben und Werke (Leipzig, 1893); M. Ritter, Leopold von Ranke (Stuttgart, 1895); Nalbandian, Leopold von Rankes Bildungsjahre und Geschichtsauffassung (Leipzig, 1901); and Helmolt, Leopold Ranke (Leipzig, 1907).

At the time of his death Ranke was, not in his own country alone, generally regarded as the first of modern historians. It is no disparagement to point out that the recognition he obtained was due not only to his published work, but also to his success as a teacher. His public lectures, indeed, were never largely attended, but in his more private classes, where he dealt with the technical work of a historian, he trained generations of scholars. No one since Heyne has had so great an influence on German academical life, and for a whole generation the Berlin school had no rival. He took paternal pride RANKINE, WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN (1820-1872), in the achievements of his pupils, and delighted to see, through Scottish engineer and physicist, was born at Edinburgh on the them, his influence spreading in every university. While his 5th of July 1820, and completed his education in its university. own work lay chiefly in more modern times, he trained in his He was trained as an engineer under Sir J. B. Macneill, working classes a school of writers on German medieval history. As chiefly on surveys, harbours and railroads, and was appointed must always happen, it is only a part of his characteristics in 1855 to the chair of civil engineering in Glasgow, vacant by which they learnt from him, for his greatest qualities were the resignation of Lewis Gordon, whose work he had undertaken incommunicable. The critical method which has since become during the previous session. He was a voluminous writer on almost a formal system, aiming at scientific certainty, was subjects directly connected with his chair, and, besides conwith him an unexampled power, based on the insight acquired tributing almost weekly to the technical journals, such as the from wide knowledge, which enabled him to judge the credi-Engineer, brought out a series of standard textbooks on Civil bility of an author or the genuineness of an authority; but Engineering, The Steam-Engine and other Prime Movers, he has made it impossible for any one to attempt to write | Machinery and Millwork, and Applied Mechanics, which have modern history except on the " narratives of eye-witnesses and passed through many editions, and have contributed greatly the most genuine immediate documents" preserved in the to the advancement of the subjects with which they deal. To archives. From the beginning he was determined never to these must be added his elaborate treatise on Shipbuilding, allow himself to be misled, in his search for truth, by those Theoretical and Practical. These writings, however, corretheories and prejudices by which nearly every other historian sponded to but one phase of Rankine's immense energy and was influenced-Hegelianism, Liberalism, Romanticism, re- many-sided character. He was an enthusiastic and most useful ligious and patriotic prejudice; but his superiority to the leader of the volunteer movement from its beginning, and a ordinary passions of the historian could only be attained by writer, composer and singer of humorous and patriotic songs, those who shared his elevation of character. "My object is some of which, as "The Three Foot Rule" and "They never simply to find out how the things actually occurred." "I shall have Gibraltar," became well known far beyond the am first a historian, then a Christian," he himself said. In circle of his acquaintance. Rankine was the earliest of the another way no historian is less objective, for in his greatest three founders of the modern science of Thermodynamics works the whole narrative is coloured by the quality of his (q.v.) on the bases laid by Sadi Carnot and J. P. Joule respect'mind expressed in his style. An enemy to all controversy and ively, and the author of the first formal treatise on the subject. all violence, whether in act or thought, he had a serenity of His contributions to the theories of Elasticity and of Waves character comparable only to that of Sophocles or Goethe. rank high among modern developments of mathematical Apt to minimize difficulties, to search for the common ground physics, although they are mere units among the 150 scientific of unity in opponents, he turned aside, with a disdain which papers attached to his name in the Royal Society's Catalogue. superficial critics often mistook for indifference, from the base, The more important of these were collected and reprinted in a the violent and the common. As in a Greek tragedy, we hear handsome volume (Rankine's Scientific Papers, London, 1881), in his works the echo of great events and terrible catastrophes; which contains a memoir of the author by Prof. P. G. Tait. we do not see them. He also made it a principle not to relate Rankine died at Glasgow on the 24th of December 1872. that which was already well known, a maxim which necessarily prevented his works attaining a popularity with the unlearned equal to their reputation among historians. But no writer has surpassed him in the clearness and brevity with which he could sum up the characteristics of an epoch in the history of the world, or present and define the great forces by which the world

RANNOCH, a district of north-west Perthshire, Scotland, partly extending into Argyllshire. It measures 32 m. E. and W. and from 10 to 12 m. N. and S. and is surrounded by the districts of Badenoch, Atholl, Breadalbane, Lorne and Lochaber. Much of it is wild, bleak and boggy, and, saving on the E., it is shut in by rugged mountains. The chief rivers are

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the Tummel and the Ericht, and the principal lakes Loch Instances in which towns paid to avoid being plundered are Rannoch and Loch Lydoch, or Laidon (about 6 m. long, m. innumerable. So late as the war in the Peninsula, 1808-14, it wide and 924 ft. above the sea). Loch Rannoch lies E. and was the belief of the English soldiers that a town taken by storm W., measures 9 m: long by fully 1 m, broad, is 668 ft. above was liable to sack for three days, and they acted on their conthe sea, covers an area of nearly 7 sq. m., and has a greatest viction at Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz and San Sebastian. It was depth of 440 ft. It receives the Ericht and many other a question whether ransoms paid by merchant ships to escape streams, and discharges by the Tummel, draining a total area were or were not among the commercia belli. In the early 18th of 243 sq. m. At the head of the lake is Rannoch Barracks, so century the custom was that the captain of a captured vessel named because it was originally built to accommodate a detach-gave a bond or "ransom bill," leaving one of his crew as a ment of troops, under ensign (afterwards Sir) Hector Munro, hostage or ransomer in the hands of the captor. Frequent stationed here to maintain order after the Jacobite rising of 1745. mention is made of the taking of French privateers which had Two miles east is Carie, which was the residence of Alexander in them ten or a dozen ransomers. The owner could be sued on Robertson, 13th baron of Struan (1670-1749), the Jacobite his bond. At the beginning of the Seven Years' War ransoming and poet, who was "qut" with Dundee (1689), Mar (1715) was forbidden by act of parliament. But it was afterwards at and Prince Charles Edward (1745), and yet managed to escape least partially recognized by Great Britain, and was generally all punishment beyond self-imposed exile to France after the allowed by other nations. In recent times-for instance in the first two rebellions. Kinloch Rannoch, at the foot of the loch, Russo-Japanese War-no mention was made of ransom, and with is the principal place in the district, and is in communication the disappearance of privateering, which was conducted wholly by coach with Struan station (13 m. distant) on the Highland, for gain, it has ceased to have any place in war at sea, but the and Rannoch station (6 m.) on the West Highland railway. contributions levied by invading armies might still be accurately Dugald Buchanan (1716-1768), the Gaelic poet, was school- described by the name. master of the village for thirteen years, and a granite obelisk has been erected to his memory.

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RANTERS, an antinomian and spiritualistic English sect in the time of the Commonwealth, who may be described as the dregs RANSOM (from Lat. redemptio, through Fr. rançon), the price of the Seeker movement. Their central idea was pantheistic, that for which a captive in war redeemed his life or his freedom, a God is essentially in every creature, but though many of them town secured immunity from sack, and a ship was repurchased were sincere and honest in their attempt to express the doctrine from her captors. The practice of taking ransom arose in the of the Divine immanence, they were in the main unable to hold middle ages, and had perhaps a connexion with the common the balance. They denied Church, Scripture, the current Teutonic custom of commuting for crimes by money payments. ministry and services, calling on men to hearken to Christ within It may, however, have no such historic descent. The desire to them. Many of them seem to have rejected a belief in immormake profit out of the risks of battle, even when they were tality and in a personal God, and in many ways they resemble notably diminished by the use of armour, would account for it the Brethren of the Free Spirit in the 14th century. Their sufficiently. The right to ransom was recognized by law. One vague pantheism landed them in moral confusion, and many of of the obligations of a feudal tenant was to contribute towards them were marked by fierce fanaticism. How far the accusation paying the ransom of his lord. England was taxed for the of lewdness brought against them is just is hard to say, but they ransom of Richard the Lion Hearted, France for King John seem to have been a really serious peril to the nation. They taken at Poitiers, and Scotland for King David when he was were largely recruited from the common people, and there is captured at Durham. The prospect of gaining the ransom of plenty of evidence to show that the movement was widespread. a prisoner must have tended to diminish the ferocity of medieval The Ranters came into contact and even rivalry with the early war, even when it did not reduce the fighting between the Quakers, who were often unjustly associated with them. The knights to a form of athletic sport in which the loser paid a truth is that the positive message of the Friends helped to save forfeit. Readers of Froissart will find frequent mention of this England from being overrun with Ranterism. Samuel Fisher, a decidedly commercial aspect of the chivalrous wars of the time. Friend, writing in 1653, gives a calm and instructive account of He often records- how victors and vanquished arranged their the Ranters, which with other relevant information, including financing." The mercenary views of the military adventurers Richard Baxter's rather hysterical attack, may be read in were not disguised. Froissart repeats the story that the English Rufus M. Jones's Studies in Mystical Religion (1909), xix. In "free companions" or mercenaries, who sold their services to the middle of the 19th century the name was often applied to the the king of Portugal, grumbled at the battle of Aljubarrota in Primitive Methodists, with reference to their crude and often 1385, because he ordered their prisoners to be killed, and would noisy preaching. not pursue the defeated French and Spaniards, whereby they lost lucrative captures. The ransom of a king belonged to the king of the enemy by whom he was taken. The actual captor was rewarded at the pleasure of his lord. King Edward III. paid over instalments of the ransom of the king of France to the Black Prince, to pay the expenses of his expedition into Spain in 1367. Occasionally, as in the notable case of Bertrand du Guesclin, the ransom of a valuable knight or leader would be paid by his own sovereign. To trade in ransoms became a form of financial speculation. Sir John Fastolf in the time of King Henry V. is said to have made a large fortune by buying prisoners, and then screwing heavy ransoms out of them by ill-usage. The humane influence of ransom was of course confined to the knights who could pay. The common men, who were too poor, were massacred. Thus Lord Grey, Queen Elizabeth's lord deputy in Ireland, spared the officers of the Spaniards and Italians he took at Smerwick, but slaughtered the common Among the professional soldiers of Italy in the 15th century the hope of gaining ransom tended to reduce war to a farce. They would not lose their profits by killing their opponents. The disuse of the practice was no doubt largely due to the discovery that men who were serving for this form of gain could not be trusted to fight seriously.

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RANUNCULACEAE, in botany, a natural order of Dicotyledons belonging to the subclass Polypetalae, and containing 27 genera with about 500 species, which are distributed through temperate and cold regions but occur more especially beyond the tropics in the northern hemisphere. It is well represented in Britain, where 11 genera are native. The plants are mostly herbs, rarely shrubby, as in Clematis, which climbs by means of the leaf-stalks, with alternate leaves, opposite in Clematis, generally without stipules, and flowers which show considerable variation in the number and development of parts but are characterized by free hypogynous sepals and petals, numerous free stamens, usually many free one-celled carpels (fig. 2) and small seeds containing a minute straight embryo embedded in a copious endorsperm. The parts of the flower are generally arranged spirally on a convex receptacle. The fruit is one-seeded, an achene (fig. 3). or a many-seeded follicle (fig. 4), rarely, as in Actaea, a berrvi

From Vines's Students' Text Book of Botany, by permission of Swan, Son nenschein & Co. FIG. 1.-Gynoecium

of Ranunculus: x, receptacle with the points of insertion of the stamens, which have been removed.

The order falls into several well-defined tribes which are distinguished by characters of the flower and fruit; all are

the posterior sepal being distinguished from the remaining four by its helmet-shape (Aconitum) or spur (Delphinium). In Caltha there are no petals, but in the other genera there are honey-secreting and storing structures varying in number and in form in the different genera. In Trollius they are long and narrow with a honey-secreting pit at the base, in Nigella and Helleborus (fig. 7) they form short

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represented among British native or commonly grown garden plants.

Tribe I. Paeonieae, peony group, are mostly herbs with deeply cut leaves and large solitary showy flowers in which the parts are spirally arranged, the sepals, generally five in number, passing gradually into the large coloured petals. The indefinite stamens are succeeded by 2-5 free carpels which bear a double row of ovules along the ventral suture. Honey is secreted by a ring-like swelling. round the base of the carpels, which become fleshy or leathery in the fruit and dehisce along the ventral suture. There are only three genera, the largest of which, Paeonid, occurs in Europe, temperate Asia and western North America. P. officinalis is the common peony.

Tribe II. Helleboreae are almost exclusively north temperate or subarctic; there are 15 genera, several of which are represented in the British flora. The plants are herbs, either annual, e.g. Nigella (love-in-a-mist), or perennial by means of a rhizome, as in Aconitum or Eranthis (winter aconite). The leaves are simple, as in Caliha, but more often palmately divided as in hellebore (fig. 6), aconite (fig. 5) and larkspur. The flowers are solitary (Eranthis) or in

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FIG. 6.-Pedate leaf of Stinking Hellebore (Helleborus foetidus). It is a palmately-partite leaf, in which the lateral lobes are deeply divided. When the leaf hangs down it resembles the foot of a bird, and hence the name.

cymes or racemes, and are generally regular as in Caltha (king-cup, marsh marigold). Trollius (globe-flower), Helleborus, Aquilegia (columbine): sometimes medianly zygomorphic as in Aconitum (monkshood, aconite) and Delphinium (larkspur). The carpels, generally 3 to 5 in number, form in the fruit a many-seeded follicle, except in Actaea (baneberry), where the single carpel develops to form a many-seeded berry, and in Nigella, where the five carpels unite to form a five-chambered ovary. There is considerable variety in the form of the floral envelopes and the arrangement of the parts. The outer series, or sepals, generally five in number, is generally white or bright-coloured, serving as an attraction for Insects, especially bees, as well as a protection for the rest of the flower. Thus in Caltha and Trollius the sepals form a brilliant golden-yellow cup or globe, and in Eranthis a pale yellow star which contrasts with the green involucre of bracts immediately below it: in Nigella they are blue or yellow, and also coloured in Aquilegia. In Hellebore the greenish sepals persist till the fruit is ripe. Aconitum and Delphinium differ in the irregular development of the sepals,

AN

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FIG. 7.-Helleborus niger. 1, vertical section of flower;

2, nectary, side and front view (nat. size).

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stalked pitchers, in Aquilegia they are large and coloured with a which is the nectary. In Delphinium they are also spurred, and in showy petal-like upper portion and a long basal spur in the tip of Aconitum form a spur-like sac on a long stalk (fig. 8). The parts of the flower are generally arranged in spiral (acyclic), but are sometimes hemicyclic, the perianth forming a whorl as in winter aconite; rarely is the flower cyclic, as in Aquilegia (fig. 9) where

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FIG. 8.-Part of the flower of Aconite (Aconitum Napellus), showing two irregular horn-like petals p, supported on grooved stalks o. These serve as nectaries. s, the whorl of stamens

inserted on the thalamus, and surrounding the pistil.

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the parts throughout are arranged in alternating whorls. In Caltha, where there are no petals, honey is secreted by two shallow de pressions on the side of each carpel.

Tribe III. Anemoneae, with 8 genera, are chiefly north temperate, arctic and alpine plants, but also pass beyond the tropics to the southern hemisphere. They differ from the two preceding tribes in the numerous carpels, each with only one ovule, forming a fruit of numerous achenes. They are annual or perennial herbs, erect as in Anemone, Thalictrum (meadow-rue) and many buttercups, or creeping as in Ranunculus repens; the section Batrachium of the genus Ranunculus (q.v.) contains aquatic plants with submerged or floating stems and leaves. The flowers are solitary, as in Anemone Pulsatilla (Pasque flower) and the wood anemone, or cymose as in species of Ranunculus, or in racemes or panicles as in Thalictrum. The parts are spirally arranged throughout as in Myosurus (mouse-tail), where the very numerous carpels are borne on a much elongated receptacle, or Adonis (pheasant's eye), or the perianth is whorled as in Anemone and Ranunculus. In Anemone there is a whorl of foliage leaves below the flower, as in Eranthis. In Anemone and Thalictrum there is only one series of perianth leaves, which are petaloid and attractive in Anemone where honey is secreted by modified stamens, as in A. Pulsatilla, or, as in A. nemorosa (wood anemone), there is no honey and the flower is visited by insects for the sake of the pollen; in Thalictrum the perianth is greenish or

slightly coloured and the flower is wind-pollinated (T. minus) or | visited for its pollen. In Ranunculus and Adonis a calyx of green protective sepals is succeeded by a corolla of showy petals; in Ranunculus (fig. 10) there is a basal honey-secreting gland which is absent in Adonis. In Anemone the achenes bear the persistent naked or bearded style which aids in, dissemination; the same purpose is served by the prickles on the achenes of Ranunculus arvensis.

FIG. 10.-Petal of Crowfoot (Ranunculus), bearing at the base a honey gland protected by a scale, s.

Tribe IV. Clematideae comprise the genus Clematis (q.v.), characterized by its shrubby, often climbing habit, opposite leaves and the valvate, not imbricate as in the other tribes, aestivation of the sepals. The usually four sepals are whorled and petaloid, the numerous stamens and carpels are spirally arranged; the flowers are visited by insects for the sake of the abundant pollen. The fruit consists of numerous achenes which are generally prolonged into the long feathery style, whence the popular name of the British species, old man's beard (Clematis vitalba). The genus, which contains about 170 species, has a wide distribution, but is rarer in the tropics than in temperate regions.

Special articles will be found on the more important genera of Ranunculaceae, e.g. Aconitum, Adonis, Anemone, Baneberry (Actaea), Clematis, Columbine, Hellebore, Ranunculus.

RANUNCULUS, familiarly known as "buttercup," or crowfoot, a characteristic type of the botanical order Ranunculaceae. The Lat. name, which means a little frog or tadpole (dim. of rana, frog), was also given to a medicinal plant, which has been identified by some with the crowfoot. The Ranunculi are more or less acrid herbs, sometimes with fleshy root-fibres, or with the base of the stem dilated into a kind of tuber (R. bulbosus). They have tufted or alternate leaves, dilated into a sheath at the base, and very generally, but not universally, deeply divided above. The flowers are solitary, or in loose cymes, and are remarkable for the number and distinctness (freedom from union) of their parts. Thus there are five

sepals, as many petals, and numerous spirally arranged stamens and carpels. The petals have a little pit or honey-gland at the base, which is interesting as foreshadowing the more fully developed tubular petals of the nearly allied genera Aconitum and Helleborus. The fruit is a head of "achenes "-dry, oneseeded fruits. The genus contains a large number of species (about 250) and occurs in most temperate countries in the northern and southern hemispheres, extending into arctic and antarctic regions, and appearing on the higher mountains in the tropics. About twenty species are natives of Great Britain. R. acris, R. repens, R. bulbosus, are the common buttercups. R. arvensis, found in cornfields, has smaller pale yellow flowers and the achenes covered with stout spines. R. Lingua, spearwort, and R. Flammula, lesser spearwort, grow in marshes, ditches and wet places. R. Ficaria is the pilewort or lesser celandine, an early spring flower in pastures and waste places, characterized by having heart-shaped entire leaves and clusters of club-shaped roots. The section

Batrachium comprises the water-buttercups, denizens of pools and streams, which vary greatly in the character of the foliage according as it is submersed, floating or aerial, and when submersed varying in accordance with the depth and strength of the current. The ranunculus of the florist is a cultivated form of R. asiaticus, a native of the Levant, remarkable for

perfectly free from fresh dung. The tubers are planted in rows 5 of 6 in. apart, and 3 or 4 in. apart in the rows, the turban sorts in October, the more choice varieties in February. They should be so close that the foliage may cover the surface of the bed. The autumnplanted roots must be sheltered from severe frost. The plants when in flower should be screened from hot sunshine with an awning; when the leaves wither, the roots are to be taken up, dried, and stored. The ranunculus is readily propagated from seed obtained from semi-double sorts, which are often of themselves very beautiful flowers. It is generally sown in boxes in autumn or spring. The young plants thus raised flower often in the second, and always in the third year.

The turban varieties, which are very showy for the borders, are of a few positive colours, as scarlet, yellow, brown, carmine, and white. The florists' varieties have been bred from the Persian type, which is more delicate.

Other species known in gardens are R. aconitifolius (white bachelor's buttons), with leaves recalling aconite, and white flowers; the double-flowered form is known in gardens as fair maids of France or fair maids of Kent. A double-flowered form of R. acris is grown under the name yellow bachelor's buttons. R. bulbosus also has a pretty double-flowered variety. Of dwarfer interesting plants there are R. alpestris, 4 in., white; R. gramineus, 6 to 10 in., yellow; R. parnassifolius, 6 in., white; and R. rutaefolius, 4 to 6 in., white with orange centre. Of the taller kinds mention may be made of R. cortusaefolius, a fine buttercup, 3-5 ft. high, from Teneriffe, and hardy in the mildest parts of Britain; and R. hyalli, known as the New Zealand water lily. It is a handsome species, 2 to 4 ft. high, with large peltate leaves often a foot in diameter, and with waxy white flowers about in. across. It is not quite hardy, and even under the best conditions is a difficult plant to grow well.

born in Ratnagiri district, Bombay, on the 20th of December RAO, SIR DINKAR (1819-1896), Indian statesman, was 1819, being a Chitpavan Brahmin. At fifteen he entered the service of the Gwalior state, in which his ancestors had served. Rapidly promoted to the responsible charge of a division, he displayed unusual talents in reorganizing the police and revenue departments, and in reducing chaos to order. In 1851 Dinkar Rao became dewan. The events which led to the British victories of Maharajpur and Panniar in 1844 had filled the state with mutinous soldiery, ruined the finances, and weakened authority. With a strong hand the dewan suppressed disorder, abolished ruinous imposts, executed public works, and by a reduction of salaries, including his own, turned a deficit into a surplus. When the contingent mutinied in 1857, he never wavered in loyalty; and although the state troops also mutinied in June 1858 on the approach of Tantia Topi, he adhered to the British cause, retiring with Maharaja Sindhia to the Agra fort. After the restoration of order he remained minister the minor Rana of Dholpur, but soon afterwards he resigned, until December 1859. In 1873 he was appointed guardian to commissioner, with the Maharajas Sindhia and Jaipur, and owing to ill-health. In 1875 the viceroy selected him as a three British colleagues, to try the Gaekwar of Baroda on a charge of attempting to poison the British resident. He also served in the legislative council of India, and was frequently conferred upon him, with the hereditary title of Raja, for his consulted by viceroys on difficult questions. An estate was eminent services, and the decoration of K.C.S.I. He died on the 9th of January 1896. No Indian statesman of the 19th century gained a higher reputation, yet he only commenced the study of English at the age of forty, and was never able to converse fluently in it; his orthodoxy resented social reforms;

the range of colour of the flowers (yellow to purplish black) he kept aloof from the Indian Congress, and he had received no

and for the regularity with which the stamens and pistils are replaced by petals forming double flowers. R. asiaticus is one of the older florists' flowers, which has sported into numberless varieties, but was formerly held in much greater esteem than it is at the present time. According to the canons of the florists, the flowers, to be perfect, should be of the form of two-thirds of a ball, the outline forming a perfect circle, with the centre close, the petals smooth-edged, the colour dense, and the marking uniform.

The ranunculus requires a strong and moist soil, with a fourth of rotten dung. The soil should be from 18 in. to 2 ft. deep, and at about 5 in. below the surface there should be placed a stratum 6 or 8 in. thick of two-year-old rotten cow-dung, mixed with earth, the earth above this stratum, where the roots are to be placed, being

training in British administration.

RAO, SIR T. MADHAVA (1828-1891), Indian statesman, was born at Combaconum in Madras in 1828. Madhava Rao created a new type of minister adapted to the modern requirements of a progressive native state, and he grafted it upon the old stock. heredity, tradition and conservatism to effect reforms in the He linked the past with the present, using the advantages of public administration and in Indian society. Sprung from a Mahratta Brahmin stock long settled at Tanjore, the son of a dewan of Travancore, he was educated in the strictest tenets of his sacred caste. But he readily imbibed the new spirit of the age. To mathematics, science and astronomy he added a study of English philosophy and international law and a taste for art

may be seen in his Cours d'archéologie (1828). In 1829 appeared his Monuments inédits, a work of great value at the time. Still valuable are his Peintures inédites (1836) and his Peintures de Pompéi (1844). He contributed to the Annali of the Roman Institute, the Journal des savants and the Académie des inscriptions. At his death on the 3rd of July 1854 Raoul Rochette was perpetual secretary of the Academy of Fine Arts and a corresponding member of most of the learned societies in Europe.

and pictures. Although a devout student of the Shastras, he | archaeology at the Bibliothèque (from 1826), a result of which advocated female education and social reform. Refusing to cross the sea and so break caste by appearing before a parliamentary commission, he yet preached religious toleration. A patron of the Indian Congress, he borrowed from the armoury of British administration every reform which he introduced into the native states. He was respected alike by Europeans and natives, and received titles and honours from the British government. As tutor of the maharaja of Travancore, and then as revenue officer in that state, he showed firmness and ability, and became diwan or prime minister in 1857. He found the finances disorganized, and trade cramped by monopolies and oppressive duties. He co-operated with the Madras government in carrying out reforms, and when his measures led to misunderstandings with the maharaja, he preferred honourable resignation to retention of a lucrative office in which he was powerless for good. In 1872 he was engaged at Indore in laying down a plan of reform and of public works which he bequeathed to his successor, when a grave crisis at Baroda demanded his talents there. The Gaekwar had been deposed for scandalous misrule, and an entire reorganization was needed. Aided by Sir Philip Melvill, Madhava Rao swept away the corrupt officials, privileged sirdars and grasping contractors who had long ruined Baroda. He wrote able minutes defending the rights and privileges of the Gaekwar from fancied encroach-in connexion with the work on solutions, to which he devoted ment, and justifying the internal reforms which he introduced. He resigned office in 1882, and in his retirement devoted his leisure to reading and writing upon political and social questions. He died on the 4th of April 1891.

RAOUL DE CAMBRAI, the name of a French chanson de geste. The existing romance is a 13th-century recension of a poem by a trouvère of Laon called Bertholais, who professed to have witnessed the events he described. It presents, like the other provincial geste of Garin le Loherain, a picture of the devastation caused by the private wars of the feudal chiefs. A parallel narrative, obviously inspired by popular poetry, is preserved in the chronicle of Waulsort (ed. Achery, Spicilegium, ii. p. 100 seq.), and probably corresponds with the earlier recension. Raoul de Cambrai, the posthumous son of Raoul Taillefer, count of Cambrai, by his wife Alais, sister of King Louis (d'Outre-Mer), whose father's lands had been given to another, demanded the fief of Vermandois, which was the natural inheritance of the four sons of Herbert, lord of Vermandois. On King Louis's refusal, he proceeded to war. The chief hero on the Vermandois side was Bernier, a grandson of Count Herbert, who had been the squire and firm adherent of Raoul, until he was driven into opposition by the fate of his mother, burned with the nuns in the church of Origny. Bernier eventually slew the terrible Raoul in single fight, but in his turn was slain, after an apparent reconciliation, and the blood-feud descended to his sons. The date of these events is exactly ascertainable. Flodoard (Annales, Anno 943) states that Count Herbert died in that year, and was buried. by his sons at St Quentin, that when they learnt that Raoul, son of Raoul de Gouy, was about to invade their father's territory, they attacked him and put him to death. The identity of other of the personages of the story has also been fixed from historical sources. The second part of the poem, of which Bernier is the hero, is of later date, and bears the character of a roman d'aventures.

See Li Romans de Raoul de Cambrai et de Bernier, ed. E. le Glay (Paris, 1840); Raoul de Cambrai, ed. P. Meyer and A. Longnon (Soc. des anc. textes fr., Paris, 1882); J. M. Ludlow, Popular Epics of the Middle Ages (London and Cambridge, 1865); H. Gröber,

Grundriss d. roman. Phil. (ii. pp. 567 seq.).

RAOUL ROCHETTE, DÉSIRÉ (1790–1854), French archaeologist, was born on the 9th of March 1790 at St Amand in the department of Cher, and received his education at Bourges. He was made professor of history in the Collége de Louis-leGrand at Paris (1813) and in the Sorbonne (1817). His Histoire critique de l'établissement des colonies grecques (4 vols., 1815) is now out of date. He was superintendent of antiquities in the Bibliothèque at Paris (1819-48), and professor of

RAOULT, FRANÇOIS MARIE (1830-1901), French chemist, was born at Fournes, in the Département du Nord, on the roth of May 1830. He became aspirant répétiteur at the lycée of Rheims in 1853, and after holding several intermediate positions was appointed in 1862 to the professorship of chemistry in Sens lycée, where he prepared the thesis on electromotive force which gained him his doctor's degree at Paris in the following year. In 1867 he was put in charge of the chemistry classes at Grenoble, and three years later he succeeded to the chair of chemistry, which he held until his death on the 1st of April 1901. Raoult's earliest researches were physical in character, being largely concerned with the phenomena of the voltaic cell, and later there was a period when more purely chemical questions engaged his attention. But his name is best known the last two decades of his life. His first paper on the depression of the freezing-points of liquids by the presence of substances dissolved in them was published in 1878; and continued investigation and experiment with various solvents, such as benzene and acetic acid, in addition to water, led him to believe in a simple relation between the molecular weights of the substances and the freezing-point of the solvent, which he expressed as the "loi générale de la congélation," that if one molecule of a substance be dissolved in 100 molecules of any given solvent, the temperature of solidification of the latter will be lowered by 0-63° C. (See, however, the article SOLUTION.) Another relation at which he worked was that the diminution in the vapour-pressure of a solvent, caused by dissolving a substance in it, is proportional to the molecular weight of the substance dissolved-at least when the solution is dilute. These two generalizations not only afforded a new method of determining the molecular weights of substances, but have also been utilized by J.. H. van't Hoff and W. Ostwald, among other chemists, in support of the hypothesis of electrolytic dissociation in solutions. An account of Raoult's life and work was given by Professor van't Hoff in a memorial lecture delivered before the London Chemical Society on the 26th of March 1902.

RAOUX, JEAN (1677-1734), French painter, was born at Montpellier in 1677. After the usual course of training he became a member of the Academy in 1717 as an historical painter. His reputation had been previously established by the credit of decorations executed during his three years in Italy on the palace of Giustiniani Sclini at Venice, and by some easel paintings, the Four Ages of Man (National Gallery), commissioned by the grand prior of Vendôme. To this latter class of subject Raoux devoted himself, nor did he even paint portraits except in character. The list of his works is a long series of sets of the Seasons, of the Hours, of the Elements, or of those scenes of amusement and gallantry in the representation of which he was immeasurably surpassed by his younger rival Watteau. After his stay in England (1720) he lived much in the Temple, where he decorated several rooms. He died in Paris in 1734. His best pupils were Chevalier and Montdidier. His works, of which there is a poor specimen in the Louvre, were much engraved by Poilly, Moyreau, Dupuis, &c.

RAPALLO, a seaport and winter resort of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa. Pop. (1901) 5839 (town); 10,343 (commune). It occupies a beautiful and well-sheltered situation on the east side of the Gulf of Rapallo, 18 m. E. by S. from Genoa by rail. It has a fine church, a medieval castle (now used as a prison) and a Roman Bridge, known as " Hanni. bal's Bridge." On the hills above the town is situated the

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