highly inquisitive and full of penetration." It is interesting to note that when another great Englishman, Rajah Brooke, began his career in Sarawak in 1838, he announced: "I go to carry Sir Stamford Raffles's views in Java over the whole Archipelago."

The policy of Raffles was based on the assumption that Java would be retained, but for reasons of European policy it was decided that it must be restored to Holland. After his return to England in 1816 he endeavoured to obtain a reconsideration of the question, but the decision taken was embodied in a treaty and beyond all possibility of modification. During his stay in England Raffles was knighted by the prince regent, published his History of Java (1817) and discussed with Sir Joseph Banks a project for the foundation in London of a zoological museum and garden on the model of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. He also married his second wife, Sophia, daughter of T. W. Hull of Co. Down; he had many children by both marriages, but the only one to live beyond childhood was a daughter, who died fifteen years after her father's death, and before she was twenty. He left, therefore, no direct descendants.

In November 1817 Sir Stamford quitted England on his return to the East, where the lieutenant-governorship of Fort Marlborough (Sumatra) had been kept in reserve for him. His administration of Sumatra, which lasted from March 1818 till December 1823, was characterized by the same breadth of view, consistency of purpose and energy in action that had made his government of Java remarkable. He had not, however, done with the Dutch, who, on their recovery of Java, endeavoured to establish a complete control over the Eastern archipelago, and to oust British trade. This design Sir Stamford set himself to baffle, and although he was more frequently censured than praised by his superiors for his efforts, he had already met with no inconsiderable success in minor matters when, by a stroke of genius and unrivalled statecraft, he stopped for all time the Dutch project of a mare clausum by the acquisition and founding of Singapore on the 29th of January 1819.

his early education at a school at Hammersmith, but when only | highly polished people, considerably advanced in science, fourteen he obtained temporary work in the secretary's office of the East India Company. In 1800 he was appointed junior clerk on the establishment. In 1805 the East India Company decided to make Penang a regular presidency, and sent out a governor with a large staff, including Stamford Raffles, who was appointed assistant-secretary. On the eve of his departure he married Mrs Fancourt (Olivia Mariamne Devenish), widow of a surgeon on the Madras Establishment; she proved herself a helpful wife and counsellor to her husband in his rapid rise to fortune during the following nine years, dying prematurely in Java in November 1814. On his way out to Penang, Raffles began the study of the Malay language, and had mastered its grammar before his arrival. He continued his studies, finding a congenial fellow-worker and kindred spirit in John Leyden, who was invalided to Penang. In August 1806 Raffles was appointed acting secretary during the illness of that official, and in 1807 he received the full appointment. In the meantime he had acted as Malay interpreter, which entailed heavy and unappreciated work in addition to his regular duties. In 1808 his health gave way, and he was ordered for a change to Malacca. This proved a turning-point in his career. The East India Company had decided to abandon Malacca, and orders had been issued to dismantle it. Raffles perfected his study of Malay during his stay at this place, and learning from the Malays, with whom he mixed freely, that the abandonment of so important a position would be a grave fault, he drew up a report explaining the great importance of Malacca, and urging in the strongest manner its retention. This report was sent by the Penang authorities not only to London, but to the governor-general, the earl of Minto. The latter was so impressed by the report that he at once gave orders for suspending the evacuation of Malacca, and in 1809 the company decided to reverse its own decision. When the whole question was calmly considered in the light of subsequent events, many years later, the verdict was that Raffles had "prevented the alienation of Malacca from the British Crown." A direct correspondence with Lord Minto was established by the mediation of Leyden, who wrote to Raffles that the governor-general would be gratified in receiving communications direct from him. In June 1810 Raffles, of his own accord, proceeded to Calcutta, where Lord Minto gave him the kindest reception. Raffles remained four months in Calcutta, and gained the complete confidence of the governor-general. He brought Lord Minto round to his opinion that the conquest of the island of Java, then in the hands of the French, was an imperative necessity. To prepare the way for the expedition, Raffles was sent to Malacca as agent to the Governor-General with the Malay States." He did his work well and thoroughly-even to the extent of discovering that the short and direct route to Batavia by the Caramata passage would be safe for the fleet. In August 1811 the expedition, accompanied by Lord Minto, and with Sir Samuel Auchmuty in command of the troops (11,000 in number, half English and half Indian), occupied Batavia without fighting. On the 25th of the same month a battle was fought at Cornelis, a few miles south of Batavia, and resulted in a complete English victory. On the 18th of September the French commander, General Janssens, formally capitulated at Samarang, and the conquest of the island was completed. Lord Minto's first act was to appoint Raffles lieutenant-governor of Java. From September 1811 until his departure for England in March 1816, Raffles ruled this large island with conspicuous success and the most gratifying results. To give only one fact in support of this statement, he increased the revenue eightfold at the same time that he abolished transit dues, reduced port dues to one-third and removed the fetters imposed on trade and intercourse with the Javanese by Dutch officialdom. In his own words, his administration aimed at being "not only without fear, but without reproach." He had a still greater ambition, which was, in his own words, "to make Java the centre of an Eastern insular Empire," and to establish the closest relations of friendship and alliance with the Japanese, whom he described as "a

In 1824 Sir Stamford returned to England, but unfortunately the differences between him and the East India Company had resulted in an accumulation of disputes which placed a severe strain on his enfeebled constitution. The memorials and statements that he had to compile for his own vindication would fill a large volume, but at last the court passed (12th of April 1826) a formal decision in his favour. It did not omit, however, to censure him for " his precipitate and unauthorized emancipation of the Company's slaves," or after his death to make his widow pay £10,000 for various items, which included the expense of his mission to found Singapore! Harassed as he was by these personal affairs, he still found time to carry out his original scheme with regard to a zoological society in London. Ile took the largest part in the creation of the existing society, and his fine Sumatra collection formed its endowment. He was unanimously elected its president at the first meeting, and by a remarkable unanimity of opinion on the part of those who helped in the work, he has been recognized as "the Founder of the Zoological Society." He was contemplating entering parliamentary life when his sudden death on his birthday, 1826, ended his brilliant career at the early age of forty-five. Sir Frederick Weld, lieutenant-governor at Singapore, when unveiling the statue of his predecessor at that place in 1887, crystallized the thoughts of his countrymen and anticipated the verdict of history in a single sentence: "In Raffles, England had one of her greatest sons.'

See Lady Raffles, Memoir of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (1830); D. C. Boulger, Life of Sir Stamford Raffles (1897); Hugh Egerton, Sir Stamford Raffles (1899); J. Buckley, Records of Singapore (1903). (D. C. B.)

RAFN, KARL CHRISTIAN (1795-1864), Danish archaeologist, was born in Brahesborg, Fünen, on the 16th of January 1795, and died at Copenhagen on the 20th of October 1864. He is chiefly known in connexion with the controversy as to the question of the discovery of America by the Norsemen, his

views being contained in his chief work, Antiquitates Americanae | stead in dealing with the generals and admirals, British, French (Copenhagen, 1837). See LEIF ERICSSON.

RAFTER, a beam in a sloping roof to which is attached the framework for the slating, tiling or other external covering (see ROOFS). The O.Eng. raefter is cognate with Icel. raftr, Dan. and Swed. rafte or raft, a beam, which, in the special sense of a floating collection of timbers, gives the English "raft." The ultimate base of these words is the root raf-, to cover, seen in Gr. ópodos, roof.

The

and Turkish, who were associated with him. But the trying winter campaign in the Crimea also brought into prominence defects perhaps traceable to his long connexion with the formalities and uniform regulations of military offices in peace time. For the hardships and sufferings of the English soldiers in the terrible Crimean winter before Sevastopol, owing to failure in the commissariat, both as regards food and clothing, Lord Raglan and his staff were at the time severely censured by the press and the government; but, while Lord Raglan was possibly to blame in representing matters in a too sanguine light, it afterwards appeared that the chief neglect rested with the home authorities. But this hopefulness was a shining military quality in the midst of the despondency that settled upon the allied generals after their first failures, and at Balaklava and Inkermann he displayed the promptness and resolution of his youth. He was made a field marshal after Inkermann. During the trying winter of 1854-55, the suffering he was compelled to witness, the censures, in great part unjust, which he had to endure and all the manifold anxieties of the siege seriously undermined his health, and although he found a friend and ardent supporter in his new French colleague, General Pélissier (q.v.), disappointment at the failure of the assault of the 18th of June 1855 finally broke his spirit, and very shortly afterwards, on the 28th of June 1855, he died of dysentery. His body was brought home and interred at Badminton.

His elder son having been killed at the battle of Ferozeshah (1845), the title descended to his younger son Richard Henry Fitzroy Somerset, 2nd Baron Raglan (1817-1884); and subsequently to the latter's son, George Fitzroy Henry Somerset, 3rd baron (b. 1857), under-secretary for war 1900-2, lieutenantgovernor of the Isle of Man (1902) and a prominent militia officer.

RAGMAN ROLLS, the name given to the collection of instruments by which the nobility and gentry of Scotland were com

RAGATZ, a famous watering-place in the Swiss canton of St Gall, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, and by rail 13 m. N. of Coire or 61 m. S.E. of Zürich. It stands at a height of 1696 ft., at the entrance to the magnificent gorge of the Tamina, about 3 m. up which by carriage road are the extraordinarily placed Baths of Pfäfers (2247 ft.). Since 1840 the hot mineral waters of Pfäfers are conducted in pipes to Ragatz, which is in a more pleasant position. Consequently Ragatz has much increased in importance since that date. In 1900 its native population was 1866, mainly German-speaking, while there were 1472 Romanists to 392 Protestants. annual number of visitors is reckoned at 30,000. In the churchyard is the grave of the philosopher Schelling (d. here in 1854). About 2 m. by road above Ragatz are the 17th-century buildings (now the cantonal lunatic asylum) of the great Benedictine abbey of Pfäfers (720-1838), to which all this region belonged till 1798; while midway between them and Ragatz are the ruins of the 14th-century castle of Wartenstein, now accessible from Ragatz by means of a funicular railway. (W. A. B. C.) RAGLAN, FITZROY JAMES HENRY SOMERSET, IST BARON (1788-1855), British field marshal, was the eighth and youngest son of Henry, 5th duke of Beaufort, by Elizabeth, daughter of Admiral the Hon. Edward Boscawen, and was born on the 30th of September 1788. His elder brother, General Lord (Robert) Edward (Henry) Somerset (1776-1842), distinguished himself as the leader of the Household Cavalry brigade at Waterloo. Lord Fitzroy Somerset was educated at West-pelled to subscribe allegiance to Edward I. of England between minster school, and entered the army in 1804. In 1807 he was attached to the Hon. Sir Arthur Paget's embassy to Turkey, and the same year he was selected to serve on the staff of Sir Arthur Wellesley in the expedition to Copenhagen. In the following year he accompanied the same general in a like capacity to Portugal, and during the whole of the Peninsular War was at his right hand, first as aide-de-camp and then as military secretary. He was wounded at Busaco, became brevet-major after Fuentes de Oñoro, accompanied the stormers of the 52nd light infantry as a volunteer at Ciudad Rodrigo and specially distinguished himself at the storming of Badajoz, being the first to mount the breach, and afterwards showing great resolution and promptitude in securing one of the gates before the French could organize a fresh defence. During the short period of the Bourbon rule in 1814 and 1815 he was secretary to the English embassy at Paris. On the renewal of the war he again became aide-de-camp and military secretary to the duke of Wellington. About this time he married Emily Harriet, daughter of the 3rd earl of Mornington, and Wellington's niece. At Waterloo he was wounded in the right arm and had to undergo amputation, but he quickly learned to write with his left hand, and on the conclusion of the war resumed his duties as secretary to the embassy at Paris. From 1818 to 1820, and again in 1826-29, he sat in the House of Commons as member for Truro. In 1819 he was appointed secretary to the duke of Wellington as master-general of the ordnance, and from 1827 till the death of the duke in 1852 was military secretary to him as commander-in-chief. He was then appointed master-general of the ordnance, and was created Baron Raglan. In 1854 he was promoted general and appointed to the command of the English troops sent to the Crimea (see CRIMEAN WAR) in co-operation with a strong French army under Marshal St Arnaud and afterwards, up to May 1855, under Marshal Canrobert. Here the advantage of his training under the duke of Wellington was seen in the soundness of his generalship, and his diplomatic experience stood him in good

the conference of Norham in May 1291 and the final award in favour of Baliol in November 1292, and again in 1296. Of the former of these records two copies were preserved in the chapterhouse at Westminster (now in the Record Office, London), and it has been printed by Rymer (Foedera, ii. 542). Another copy, preserved originally in the Tower of London, is now also in the Record Office. The latter record, containing the various acts of homage and fealty extorted by Edward from Baliol and others in the course of his progress through Scotland in the summer of 1296 and in August at the parliament of Berwick, was published by Prynne from the copy in the Tower and now in the Record Office. Both records were printed by the Bannatyne Club in 1834. The derivation of the word " ragman has never been satisfactorily explained, but various guesses as to its meaning and a list of examples of its use for legal instruments both in England and Scotland will be found in the preface to the Bannatyne Club's volume, and in Jamieson's Scottish Dictionary, s.v. Ragman." The name ragman roll" survives in the colloquial rigmarole," a rambling, incoherent statement.

The name of "Ragman " has been sometimes confined to the record of 1296, of which an account is given in Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland preserved in the Public Record Office, London (1884), vol. ii., Introd., p. xxiv; and as to the seals see p. lii and appendix.

RAG-STONE (probably equivalent to "ragged" stone), a name given by some architectural writers to work done with stones which are quarried in thin pieces, such as the Horsham sandstone, Yorkshire stone, the slate stones, &c.; but this is more properly flag or slab work. By rag-stone, near London, is meant an excellent material from the neighbourhood of Maidstone. It is a very hard limestone of bluish-grey colour, and peculiarly suited for medieval work. It is often laid as uncoursed work, or random work (see RANDOM), sometimes as random coursed work and sometimes as regular ashlar. The first method, however, is the more picturesque. (See MASONRY.)

|

RAGUSA (Serbo-Croatian Dubrovnik), an episcopal city, | is derived from the Slavonic dubrava, “woody." The city and the centre of an administrative district in Dalmatia, Austria. first became prominent during the 7th century. In 639 Pop. (1900) of town and commune, 13,174, including a garrison and 656 the flourishing Latin communities of Salona and of 1122. Its situation and its undisturbed atmosphere of Epidaurum were destroyed by the Avars, and the island rock antiquity combine to make Ragusa by far the most picturesque of Ragusa was colonized by the survivors. Tradition identifies city on the Dalmatian coast. It occupies a ridge or promontory, Epidaurum, whence the majority came, with the neighbouring which juts out into the Adriatic Sea, under the bare limestone village of Ragusavecchia; but some historians, including Gelcich, mass of Monte Sergio. Its seaward fortifications rise directly place it on the shores of the Bocche di Cattaro. Both sites from the water's edge, one fort, on the north mole, standing show signs of Roman occupation. A colony of Slavs soon boldly on a tall rock almost isolated by a little inlet of the joined the Latin settlers at Ragusa, and thus, from an carly Adriatic. On the landward side a massive round tower domi- date, the city formed a link between two great civilizations nates the city from a still higher eminence. Beyond the walls (see VLACHS). In the 9th century it is said to have repulsed and the deep moat, especially on the northward side towards the Saracens; in the 10th it defended itself against the Narenthe port of Gravosa, are many pleasant villas, surrounded by tine pirates, and Simeon, tsar of the Bulgarians. Some writers gardens in which the aloe, palm and cypress are conspicuous consider that it submitted to Venice in 998, with the rest of among a number of flowering trees and shrubs. The island of Dalmatia; but this is generally denied by the native historians. Lacroma lies less than half a mile to the south. Between the During the 11th century an enforced alliance with the Normans seaward ridge and the mountain, the Stradone, or main street, drew the republic into war with Venice and Byzantium; and runs along a narrow valley which, until the 13th century, in the 12th century it was attacked by the Bosnians and Serbs. was a marshy channel, dividing the Latin island of Ragusa From 1205 to 1358 it acknowledged Venetian suzerainty; its from the Slavonic settlement of Dubrovnik, on the lower slopes chief magistrate was the Venetian count; and its archbishops, of Monte Sergio. Parallel to the Stradone, on the north, is the who wielded much political influence, were often Venetian Prijeki, a long, very narrow street, flanked by tall houses with nominees. The constitution took shape during this period, overhanging balconies, and greatly resembling a Venetian and the first statute-book was published in 1272. Only alley. Despite the havoc wrought by earthquake in 1667, the patricians could hold office in the senate, grand council and whole city is rich in antiquarian interest. It possesses one lesser council, three bodies which shared the work of governchurch, of the Byzantine period, which is mentioned in 13th- ment with the count, or, after 1358, the rector. The ancient century documents as even then of great age. Two stately popular assembly was almost obsolete before the 14th century. convents of the 14th century stand at the ends of the city; Ragusan policy was usually peaceful, and disputes with other for the Franciscans were set to guard the western gate, or Porta | nations were frequently arranged by a system of arbitration Pile, against the hostile Slavs, while the Dominicans kept the called stanicum. To refugees of all nations, even to those who eastern gate, or Porta Ploce. The Franciscan cloister is a fine | had been its own bitter foes, the city afforded asylum; and specimen of late Romanesque; that of the Dominicans is by means of treaty and tribute it worked its way to a position hardly inferior, though of later date. The Dominican church of mercantile power which Europe could hardly parallel. It is approached by a sloping flagged lane, having on one was conveniently situated at the seaward end of a great trade side a beautifully ornamented balustrade of the 18th century. route, which bifurcated at Plevlje to Byzantium and the Another 14th-century building is the Sponza, or custom-house, Danube. A compact with the Turks, made 1370 and renewed from which the state derived its principal revenue. A fountain in the next century, saved Ragusa from the fate of its more and a curious clock-tower in the Piazza, which terminates the powerful neighbours, Servia and Byzantium, besides enabling Stradone towards the east, were erected by Onofrio, the archi- the Ragusan caravans to penetrate into Hungary, Croatia, tect and engineer whose aqueduct, built about 1440; supplied Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria and Rumania. From 1358 to 1526 Ragusa with water from the neighbouring hills. The Rector's the republic was a vassal state of Hungary, and no longer Palace, another noteworthy example of late Romanesque, controlled by its greatest commercial rival. It acquired, combined with Venetian Gothic, is one of the masterpieces of among other territories, the important ship-building and saltDalmatian architecture. It has a fine façade of six arches, producing centre Stagno Grande (Ston Veliki), on the promonand the capitals of the supporting pillars are very curiously tory of Sabbioncello; and from 1413 to 1416 it held the islands carved. Especially interesting is the figure of Aesculapius, of Curzola, Brazza and Lesina by lease from Hungary. Meanwhose traditional birthplace was Epidaurum or Epidaurus, while, Ragusan vessels were known not only in Italy, Sicily, the parent city of Ragusa. The cathedral dates from the Spain, Greece, the Levant and Egypt, but in the more northern 18th century; and to the same period belongs another church, parts of Europe. The English language retains in the word rebuilt after a fire, but originally erected as a votive offering argosy a reminiscence of the carracks of Ragusa, long after the pestilence of 1348, and dedicated to San Biagio (St known to Englishmen as Argouse, Argusa or Aragosa. In the Blaize), the patron of Ragusa, whose name and effigy con- 16th century the Ragusan merchants went even to India and tinually appear on coins and buildings. Among many fine pieces America, but they were unable to compete with their rivals of jewellers' work preserved in the ecclesiastical treasuries may from western Europe. Many of their seamen took service be mentioned the silver statuette of San Biagio, and the reli- with Spain; and twelve of their finest ships were lost with the quary which contains his skull-a 17th-century casket in filigree Invincible Armada in 1588. After 1526 the downfall of Hunand enamels with Byzantine medallions of the 11th or 12th gary left Ragusa free; and about this time a great developcentury. ment of art and literature, begun in the 15th century and continued into the 17th, earned for the city its title of the "South Slavonic Athens." (See SERVIA, Literature.) The earthquake of 1667, which had been preceded by lesser shocks in 1520, 1521, 1536 and 1639, destroyed a considerable portion of the city, and killed about one-fifth of the inhabitants. Only during the Napoleonic wars did the republic regain its prosperity. From 1800 to 1805 it was the sole Mediterranean state remaining neutral, and thus it secured a very large share of the carrying trade. In 1805, however, it was seized by the French; Napoleon deprived it of independence; and in 1814 it was annexed to Austria.

The harbour of Ragusa, once one of the chief ports of southern Europe, is too small for modern needs; but Gravosa (Gruž), a village at the mouth of the river Ombla, on the north, is a steamship station and communicates by rail with Herzegovina and the Bocche di Cattaro. Ragusa has thus some transit trade with the interior. Its industries include the manufacture of liqueurs, oil, silk and leather; but Malmsey, its famous wine, could no longer be produced after the vinedisease of 1852.

History. The name Ragusa is of uncertain origin. Constantine Porphyrogenitus, in the 10th century, connects its early form, Lausa, with λaû, a "precipice." Jireček dissents from this view, and from the common opinion that Dubrovnik |

See L. Villari, The Republic of Ragusa (London, 1904), for a thorough description and history, with a full bibliography, T. G.

Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria (Oxford, 1887), gives | The acts of its armed forces cannot in reason be distinguished the best account of Ragusan architecture and antiquities. The from the acts of the armed forces of the state government. most accurate native history is G. Gelcich (Gelčić), Dello Sviluppo Thus compensation is just as much due for them as for the civile di Ragusa (Ragusa, 1884). The course of Ragusan trade may be studied in C J. Jireček, Die Handelsstrassen und Bergwerke von deliberate acts of the state itself, and any claim of an injured Serbien, &c. (Prague, 1879); and Heyd, Histoire du commerce du state can only be preferred against the state to which the Lévant au moyen âge (Lei, zig, 1885). company belongs. Invasion by the regular forces of a state, or by the regular forces of its delegated authority, being an act of war, the laws of war apply to it, and, on capture, such forces, or any members or part of such forces, are prisoners of war. On the other hand, the state whose subordinate authorities commit acts of war against a friendly state has the option of following them up as a commencement of hostilities, or of giving satisfactory compensation to the invaded state. Where the invasion is not by forces subject to the orders of a state, the invaded state has the right to apply its own laws for the repression of disturbances in its territory. Thus, in the so-called Jameson Raid, the Transvaal government had no right to treat Dr Jameson, an officer holding his powers under the British government, and his subordinates, as outlaws, and it was probably so advised, and the British government owed proper compensation for an act for the consequences of which, under international law, it was responsible.

RAGUSA, a town of Sicily in the province of Syracuse, 70 m. S.W. of Syracuse by rail and 32 m. direct. It consists of an upper (Ragusa Superiore) and a lower town (Ragusa Inferiore), each of which forms a separate commune. Pop. (1906) of the former, 35,529; of the latter, 866. It has some churches with fine Gothic architecture, and is commercially of some importance, a stone impregnated with bitumen being quarried and prepared for use for paving slabs by being exposed to the action of fire. On the hill occupied by the castle of Ragusa Inferiore stood the ancient Hybla Heraca, a Sicel town, under the walls of which Hippocrates of Gela fell in 491 B.C. A Greek settlement seems to have arisen in the neighbourhood close to the present railway station, about the middle of the 6th century B.C., and to have disappeared at the end of the 5th. Orsi points out that the remains (cuttings in the rock and a part of the castle wall), attributed by Freeman (History of Sicily, i. 163) to Sicel times, are in reality postRoman.

See Orsi in Notizie degli scavi (1899), 402–418.

RAHWAY, a city of Union county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the north-eastern part of the state, on the Rahway river and about 20 m. S.W. of New York City. Pop. (1890) 7105; (1900) 7935, of whom 1345 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 9337. Rahway is served by the main line of the Pennsylvania railroad, and is connected with neighbouring cities by electric lines. It has wide streets and attractive parks, and is, to some extent, a residential suburb of New York and other neighbouring cities. It has a public library (1864), with upwards of 17,000 volumes, and about 1 m. distant is the New Jersey Reformatory (1903), to which prisoners between the ages of sixteen and thirty may be sentenced instead of to the State Prison. There are various manufactures. Rahway was first settled in 1720, and was named in honour of the Indian chief Rahwack, whose tribe owned the site and the surrounding territory; it was chartered as a city in 1858. For many years Rahway was popularly known as Spanktown, and in January 1777, during the War of Independence, a skirmish, known as the battle of Spanktown, was fought here.

British domestic law punishes raiding under the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. c. 90). Section II of this act provides as follows.-"If any person within the limits of His Majesty's dominions, and without the licence of His Majesty, prepares or fits out any naval or military expedition to proceed against the dominions of any friendly state, the following consequences shall ensue: (1) Every person engaged in such preparation or fitting out, or assisting therein, or employed in any capacity in such expedition, shall be guilty of an offence against this act, and shall be punishable by fine and imprisonment or either of such punishments, at the discretion of the Court before which the offender is convicted; and imprisonment, if awarded, may be either with or without hard labour. (2) All ships and their equip ments, and all arms and munitions of war, used in or forming part of such expedition, shall be forfeited by His Majesty." Section 12 provides for the punishment of accessaries as principal offenders, and section 13 limits the term of imprison ment for any offence under the act to two years. In the Sandoval case (1886), in which Colonel Sandoval, who was not a British subject, bought guns and ammunition and shipped them to Antwerp, where they were put on board a vessel, which afterwards made an attack on Venezuela, it was held that the offence of fitting out and preparing an expedition within British territory against a friendly state, under this and ammunition in the British Empire, and their shipment for the purpose of being put on board a ship in a foreign port, with knowledge of the purchaser and shipper that they are to be used in a hostile demonstration against such state, though the shipper takes no part in any overt act of war, and the ship is not fully equipped for the expedition within any British port. Under the same section, Dr Jameson, administrator of the British South Africa Company, and his confederates were tried before the Central Criminal Court and sentenced to different terms of imprisonment. The offence committed under a British act is, of course, that of preparing and fitting out an expedition on British territory. Any acts subsequently committed by any British expedition on foreign soil are beyond the operation of domestic legislation, and fall to be dealt with by the domestic legislation of the state within which they occur, or by diplomacy, as the case may be. (T.BA.)

RAICHUR, a town of India, in the state of Hyderabad, at the junction of the Madras and Great Indian Peninsula railways, 351 m. N.E. from Madras. Pop. (1901) 22,165. It gives its name to the doab, or tract between the rivers Kistna and Tunga-section, is sufficiently constituted by the purchase of guns bhadra, which was the scene of much fighting between Mahommedans and Hindus as debatable land during the 16th century. It contains a well-preserved fort and two old mosques. It is a thriving centre of trade, with several cotton-presses.

RAID, in the language of international law, an invasion by armed forces, unauthorized and unrecognized by any state, of the territory of a state which is at peace. Piracy is the attack on the high sea of any vessel by an armed vessel, not authorized or recognized by any state, for the purpose of robbery. A raid for the purpose of carrying off movable property and converting it to the use of the captors would still be distinguishable from piracy, because it was committed on territory subject to an exclusive territorial jurisdiction. Where the attack or invasion by an armed ship not authorized or recognized by any state is not for the purpose of capturing property, it is properly speaking a raid and not piracy. An attack though in time of peace, by armed forces authorized or recognized by a regular government, is not a raid but an act of war, there being a government responsible for the act committed. The fact of any act being authorized, not by the supreme government, but by a chartered company, or by its governing officer, makes no difference in international law, the directorate of a chartered company exercising its powers by delegation of the state under which it holds its charter. XXII 14

RAIFFEISEN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1818-1888), founder of the German system of agricultural co-operative banks, was 1 The preamble to the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870 stated that its object was "to make provision for the regulation of the conduct of Her Majesty's subjects during the existence of hostilities between foreign states with which Her Majesty is at peace." This preamble was repealed by the Statutes Law Revision (No. 2) Act 1893. R. v. Sandoval, 1886, 56 Law Times, 526.

* R. v. Jameson, 1896, 2 Q.B., 425.

2a

born at Hamm on the Sieg on the 30th of March 1818, being the son of Gottfried Raiffeisen, burgomaster of that place. Educated privately, he entered the artillery in Cologne, but defective eyesight compelled him to leave the army. He then entered the public service at Coblenz, and in 1845 was appointed burgomaster of Weyerbusch. Here he was so successful that in 1848 he was transferred in a like capacity to Flammersfeld, and in 1852 to Heddersdorf. Raiffeisen devoted himself to the improvement of the social condition of the cultivators of the soil, and did good work in the planning of public roads and in other ways. The distress of the years 1846-47, the causes of which he discerned in the slight amount of credit obtainable by the small landed proprietors, led him to seek for a remedy in co-operation, and at Heddersdorf and at Weyerbusch he founded the first agricultural co-operative loan banks (Darlehnskassenverein). These banks were called after him, and their foundation resulted in a widespread system of land banks, supported by the government. In 1865 the state of his health compelled him to retire, but he continued to take an interest in the movement he had originated, and in 1878 he founded at Neuwied a periodical, Das landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaftsblatt. He died on the 11th of March 1888.

Among Raiffeisen's writings are, Die Darlehnskassenvereine als Mittel zur Abhilfe (Neuwied, 1866; new ed., 1887); Anleitung zur Geschäfts- und Buchführung ländlichen Spar- und Darlehnskassenvereine (new ed., 1896); and Kurse Anleitung zur Gründung von Darlehnskassenvereinen (new ed., 1893). See A. Wattig, Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen (1890); H. W. Wolff, People's Banks. Record of Social and Economic Success (1895); and Fassbender, Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen (Berlin, 1902).

A

RAIGARH, a feudatory state of India, in the Chattisgarh division of the Central Provinces. Area, 1486 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 174,929, showing an increase of 4% in the decade. Estimated revenue, £10,000; tribute, £260. The chief belongs to the old Gond royal family. The state is traversed by the Bengal-Nagpur railway, with a station at Raigarh town, 363 m. from Calcutta. Rice is the chief crop; iron ore is worked by indigenous methods, and coal is known to exist. Fine tussore silk is produced at Raigarh town (pop. 6764). Raigarh is also the name of a hill fortress in Kolaba district, Bombay, which Sivaji made his chief place of residence. Here he was crowned in 1674.

RAIKES, ROBERT (1735-1811), English educationist, the founder of Sunday schools, was the son of Robert Raikes, a printer in Gloucester and proprietor of the Gloucester Journal, and was born on the 14th of September 1735. On the death of his father in 1757 he succeeded him in the business, which he continued to conduct till 1802. Along with some others he started a Sunday school at Gloucester in 1780, and on his giving publicity to the enterprise in the columns of his journal the notice was copied into the London papers and awakened considerable attention. For nearly thirty years he continued actively engaged in the promotion of his undertaking, and he lived to witness its wide extension throughout England. He died on the 5th of April 1811. His statue stands on the Thames Embankment.

we may believe as a straggler from Europe or Barbary. The land-rail looks about as big as a partridge, but on examination its appearance is found to be very deceptive, and it will hardly ever weigh more than half as much. The plumage above is of a tawny brown, the feathers being longitudinally streaked with blackish brown; beneath it is of a yellowish white; but the flanks are of a light chestnut barred with white. The species is very locally distributed, and in a way for which there is at present no accounting. In some dry upland and corngrowing districts it is plentiful; in others, of apparently the same character, it but rarely occurs; and the same may be said in regard to low-lying marshy meadows, in most of which it is in season always to be heard, while in others having a close resemblance to them it is never met with. The nest is on the ground, generally in long grass, and therein from nine to eleven eggs are commonly laid. These are of a creamcolour, spotted and blotched with light red and grey. The young when hatched are thickly clothed with black down, as is the case in nearly all species of the family.

The water-rail, locally known as the skiddy or billcock, is the Rallus aquaticus of ornithology, and seems to be less abundant than the preceding, though that is in some measure due to its frequenting places into which from their swampy nature men do not often intrude. Having a general resemblance to the land-rail,' it can be in a moment distinguished by its partly red and much longer bill, and the darker coloration of its plumage-the upper parts being of an olive brown with black streaks, the breast and belly of a sooty grey, and the flanks dull black barred with white. Its geographical distribution is very wide, extending from Iceland (where it is said to preserve its existence during winter by resorting to the hot springs) to China; and though it inhabits Northern India, Lower Egypt and Barbary, it seems not to pass beyond the tropical line. It never affects upland districts as does the landrail, but always haunts wet marshes or the close vicinity of water. Its love-note is a loud and harsh cry, not continually repeated as is that of the land-rail, but uttered at considerable intervals and so suddenly as to have been termed "explosive." Besides this, which is peculiar to the cock-bird, it has a croaking call that is frog-like. The eggs resemble those of the preceding, but are more brightly and delicately tinted.

The various species of rails, whether allied to the former or latter of those just mentioned, are far too numerous to be here noticed. Hardly any part of the world is without a representative of the genera Crex or Rallus, and every considerable country has one or perhaps more of each-though it has been the habit of systematists with difficulty found. Thus in Europe alone three other species to refer them to many other genera, the characters of which are allied to Crex pratensis occur more or less abundantly; but one of them, the spotted rail or crake, has been made the type of a socalled genus Porzana, and the other two, little birds not much bigger than larks, are considered to form a genus Zapornia. The first of these, which used not to be uncommon in the eastern part of England, has a very near representative in the Carolina rail or sora, Crex carolina, of North America, often there miscalled the ortolan, just as its European analogue, C. porzana, is in England often termed the dotterel. But, passing over these as well as some belonging to genera that can be much better defined, and other still more interesting forms of the family, as Aphana pteryx, coot (q.v.), moor-hen (q.v.) and ocydrome (q.v.), a few words must be said of the more distant group formed by the South American Heliornis, and the African and Indian Podica, comprising four or five species, to which the name "Finfoots has been appliedfrom the lobes or flaps of skin that fringe their toes. Though for a long while placed among the Podicipedidae (see GREBE), their osteology no less than their habits appear to indicate their alliance corn-thidae of the order Gruiformes, to which the rails belong; but they with the rails, and they are placed as a separate family, Heliorniseem to show the extreme modification of that type in adaptation to aquatic life. The curious genus Mesites of Madagascar, whose systematic place has been so long in doubt, has been referred by A. Milne-Edwards (Ann. Sc. Naturelle, scr. 6, vii. art. 2) to the neighbourhood of the rails, but is now associated as a sub-order Mesitae with Galliform birds. On the other hand the jacanas or Parridae, which from their long toes were once thought to belong

Among various accounts of the life and work of Raikes mention may be made of that by P. M. Eastman, 1880,

RAIL. (1) (From Fr. Råle, cf. Ger. Ralle, Low Lat. Rallus, of unknown origin), originally the English name of two birds, distinguished from one another by a prefix as land-rail and water-rail, but latterly applied in a much wider sense to all the species which are included in the family Rallidae.

1

The land-rail, also very commonly known as the crake, and sometimes as the daker-hen, is the Rallus crex of Linnaeus and Crex pratensis of recent authors. Its monotonous grating cry has given it its common name in several languages. With comparatively few individual exceptions, the land-rail is essentially migratory. It is the Ortygometra of classical authors supposed by them to lead the quail (q.v.) on its voyages-and in the course of its wanderings has now been known to reach the coast of Greenland, and several times that of North America, to say nothing of Bermuda, in every instance

the land-rail in autumn transformed itself into a water-rail, re1 Formerly it seems to have been a popular belief in England that suming its own characters in spring.