Customs, &c.-Although in most instances the old Celtic place-names survive throughout the western portion of the county, it is only in the wild remote districts of Cwmdauddwr and St Harmon's that the Welsh tongue predominates, and in this region some of the old Welsh superstitions linger amongst the peasants and shepherds of the hills. In the eastern part of the county English is spoken universally, and the manners and customs of the inhabitants differ little from those prevailing in the neighbouring county of Hereford. On the western side of Radnor Forest the modern spirit of progress has destroyed most of the old local customs. Until the beginning of the 19th century the ancient Welsh service of the pylgain on Christmas morning was observed in Rhayader church; and the same town was formerly remarkable for an interesting ceremony, evidently of great antiquity, whereat after a funeral each attendant mourner was wont to throw a stone upon a certain spot near the church with the words " Carn ar dy ben" (a stone on thy head). The laying of malicious sprites by means of lighted tapers was formerly practised in the churches of the Wye Valley; and a curious service, commemorative of the dead and known as "the Month's End," is still observed in certain parish churches, a month after the actual funeral has taken place. The practice of farmers and their wives or daughters riding to the local markets on ponies, the older women sometimes knitting as they proceed, still continues, and is specially characteristic of agricultural life in Radnorshire.

See A General History of the County of Radnor (compiled from the MS. of the late Rev. Jonathan Williams and other sources) (Brecknock, 1905).

RADOM, a government of Russian Poland, occupying a triangular space between the Vistula and Pilica, and bounded N. by the governments of Warsaw and Siedlce, E. by Lublin, S. by the crownland of Austrian Galicia and the Polish government of Kielce, and W. by that of Piotrków. The area is 4768 sq. m. Its southern part stretches over the well-wooded Sandomir heights, a series of short ranges of hills, 800 to 1000 ft. in altitude, intersected by deep valleys, which, running west and east and drained by tributaries of the Vistula, are excellently adapted for agriculture. In its central parts, the government is level, the soil fertile, and the surface, which is diversified here and there with wood, is broken up by occasional spurs (800 ft.) of the Lysa Góra Mountains. The northern districts consist of low, flat tracts with undefined valleys, exposed to frequent floods and covered over large areas with marshes; the basin of the Pilica, notorious for its unhealthiness, is throughout a low marshy plain. Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic deposits appear in the south, Cretaceous and Jurassic in the middle, and Tertiary in the north. Extensive tracts are covered with Glacial deposits,-the Scandinavian erratics reaching as far south as Ilza; these last in their turn are overlain by widespread post-Glacial lacustrine deposits. The climate is cold and moist, the mean temperature for the year being 47° 5 Fahr., for January -5°8, and for July 77°. The Vistula skirts the government on the south and east, and is

Grain

Manu

up as Sandomir. (Sedomierz). The Sandomir district suffers occasionally from disastrous inundations of the river. The tributaries of the Vistula are short and small, those of the Pilica are sluggish streams meandering amidst marshes. The estimated population in 1906 was 932,800. The government is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which are Radom, Ilza, Konskie, Kozienice, Opatów, Opoczno and Sandomir. Out of the total area about 50% is under cultivation and 28% under forests. The principal crops are wheat, rye, barley, oats, buck-wheat, hemp, flax and potatoes, these last chiefly cultivated for distilleries. is exported. Live stock is kept in large numbers. factures have considerably developed of late years, the govern ment being rich in iron ore, while coal and zinc occur, as also marble, gypsum, alabaster, potters' clay and red sandstone. The iron industry occupies more than 60,000 workmen, and turns out annually some 100,000 tons of pig iron, 25,000 tons of iron, and 550,000 tons of steel. There are several sugar. works, tanneries, flour-mills, machinery works, distilleries, breweries and brickworks. Trade is not very extensive, the only channel of commerce being the Vistula. (P. A. K., J. T. BE.) RADOM, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 100 m. by rail S. from Warsaw. Pop. 28,740, half of whom were Jews. It is one of the best built provincial towns of Poland. The church of St Wlaclaw, contemporary with the foundation of the town, was transformed by the Austrians into a storehouse, and subsequently by the Russian government into a military prison. The old castle is in ruins, and the old Bernardine monastery is used as barracks. Radom has several iron and agricultural machinery works and tanneries. In 1216 it occupied the site of what is now Old Radom. New Radom was founded in 1340 by Casimir the Great, king of Poland. Here Jadwiga was elected queen of Poland in 1382, and here too in 1401 the first act relating to the union of Poland with Lithuania was signed; the seim or diet of 1505, where the organic law of Poland was sworn by the king, was also held at Radom: Several great fires, and still more the Swedish war of 1701-7, were the ruin of the old city. After the third partition of Poland in 1795 it fell under Austrian rule; it was in 1815 annexed to Russia, and became chief town of the province of Sandomir.

RADOMYSL, formerly MYCHEK, a town of Russia, in the government of Kiev, 31 m. W. of the city of Kiev, on the Teterev river. Pop. 18,154. It is a very old town, being mentioned in 1150; from 1746 to, 1795 it was the residence of the metropolitan of the United Greek Church. It has tanneries and flour-mills, and exports timber, corn and mushrooms.

RADOWITZ, JOSEPH MARIA VON (1797-1853), Prussian general and statesman, was born at Blankenburg in the Harz Mountains, his family being of Hungarian origin. As a young lieutenant in the Westphalian artillery he was wounded and taken prisoner at the battle of Leipzig (1813), subsequently entered the Hanoverian service, and in 1823 that of Prussia. His promotion was rapid, and in 1830 he became chief of the general staff of the artillery. In 1836 he went as Prussian military plenipotentiary to the federal diet at Frankfort, and in 1842 was appointed envoy to the courts of Carlsruhe, Darmstadt and Nassau. He had early become an intimate friend of the crown prince (afterwards King Frederick William IV.), and the Prussian constitution of February 1847 was an attempt to realize the ideas put forward by him in his Gespräche aus der Gegenwart über Staat und Kirche, published under the pseudonym Waldheim in 1846. In November 1847 and March 1848 Radowitz was sent by King Frederick William to Vienna to attempt to arrange common action for the reconstruction of the German Confederation. In the Frankfort parliament he was leader of the extreme Right; and after its break-up he was zealous in promoting the Unionist policy of Prussia, which he defended both in the Prussian diet and in the Erfurt parliament. He was practically responsible for the foreign policy of Prussia from May 1848 onwards, and on the 27th of September 1850

Raeburn spent his life in Edinburgh, rarely visiting the metropolis, and then only for brief periods, thus preserving his own sturdy individuality, if he missed the opportunity of engrafting on it some of the fuller refinement and delicacy of the London portraitists. But though he, personally, may have lost some of the advantages which might presumably have resulted from 'closer association with the leaders of English art, and from contact with a wider public, Scottish art certainly gained much from his disinclination to leave his native land. He became the acknowledged chief of the school which was growing up in Scotland during the earlier years of the 19th century, and to his example and influence at a critical period is undoubtedly due much of the striking virility by which the work of his followers and immediate successors is distinguished. Evidences of this influence can be perceived even in the present day. His leisure was employed in athletic sports, in his garden, and in architectural and mechanical pursuits, and so varied were the interests that filled his life that his sitters used to say of him, "You would never take him for a painter till he seizes the brush and palette." Professional honours fell thick upon him. In 1812 he was elected president of the Society of Artists in Edinburgh, in 1814 associate, and in the following year full member of the Royal Academy. In 1822 he was knighted by George IV. and appointed His Majesty's limner for Scotland. He died at Edinburgh on the 8th of July 1823.

In his own day the portraits of Raeburn were excellently and voluminously engraved, especially by the last members of the great school of English mezzotint. In 1876 a collection of over 300 of his works was brought together in the Royal Scottish Academy galleries; in the following year a series of twelve of his finest portraits was included in the winter exhibition of the Royal Academy, London; and a volume of photographs from his paintings was edited by Dr John Brown.

Raeburn possessed all the necessary requirements of a popular and successful portrait-painter. He had the power of producing a telling and forcible likeness; his productions are distinguished by breadth of effect, by admirable force of handling, by execution of the swiftest and most resolute sort. Wilkie has recorded that, while travelling in Spain and studying the works of Velazquez, the brush-work of that master reminded him constantly of the square touch" of Raeburn. But the portraits of Velazquez are unsurpassable examples of tone as well as of handling, and it is in the former quality that Raeburn is often wanting, possibly because his inclinations led him to study effects of diffused light in preference to those which were strong in contrasts of light and shade. The colour of his portraits is sometimes crude and out of relation, inclining to the use of positive and definite local pigments, and too little perceptive of the changeful subtleties. and modifications of atmospheric effect. His draperies frequently consist of little more than two colours -the local hue of the fabric and the black which, more or less graduated, expresses its shadows and modelling. In his flesh, too, he wants-in all but his very best productions-the delicate refinements of colouring which distinguish the works of the great English portrait-painters. His faces, with all their excellent truth of form and splendid vigour of handling, are often hard and bricky in hue. Yet, after all allowances have been made for what deficiencies there may be in his work, his right to a place among the greater British masters cannot be contested. The masculine power, the vitality and the strength of characterization which are so apparent in his paintings entitle him to the serious attention of all lovers of fine achievement; and there is much to be learned from study of his methods. His sincerity and freedom from artificial graces of style can be specially recognized, and his frank directness is always attractive.

See Life of Sir Henry Raeburn, R.A., by his great-grandson William Raeburn Andrew, M.A. Oxom. (2nd ed., 1894), which contains some of the latest information, together with a complete catalogue of the exhibition of 1876. There may also be consulted Works of Sir Henry Raeburn, R.A., with tributes by Dr John Brown and others, published by Andrew Elliot, Edinburgh; Tribute to the Memory of Raeburn by Dr Andrew Duncan, the Catalogues of the

loan exhibitions in Edinburgh of 1884 and 1901; and the Essay by W. E. Henley-Sir Henry Raeburn by William Ernest Henley (1890) with a finely produced series of plates, printed by T. & A. Constable for the now defunct Royal Association for Promotion of the Fine Arts in Scotland. But the leading work on the subject, and the most splendidly illustrated, is Sir Henry Raeburn by Sir and a piographical and descriptive catalogue by J. L. Caw (1901). Walter Armstrong, with an introduction by R. A. M. Stevenson

REDWALD (d. c. 620), king of the East Angles, was the son of King Tytili. He became a Christian during a stay in Kent, but on his return to East Anglia he sanctioned the worship both of the Christian and the heathen religions. Very little is known about his reign, which probably began soon after 600. For a time he recognized the overlordship of Æthelberht, king of Kent, but he seems to have shaken off the Kentish yoke. He gained some superiority over the land south of the Humber with the exception of Kent and is counted among the Bretwaldas. Rædwald protected the fugitive Edwin, afterwards king of Northumbria, and in his interests he fought a sanguinary battle with the reigning Northumbrian king, Æthelfrith, near Retford in Nottinghamshire, where Æthelfrith was defeated and killed in April 617. He was followed as king of the East Angles by his son Eorpwald.

See Bede, Historiae ecclesiasticae, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896); and J. R. Green, The Making of England (1897-1899).

RAETIA (so always in inscriptions; in classical MSS. usually RHAETIA), in ancient geography, a province of the Roman Empire, bounded on the W. by the country of the Helvetii, on the E. by Noricum, on the N. by Vindelicia and on the S. by Cisalpine Gaul. It thus comprised the districts occupied in modern times by the Grisons, the greater part of Tirol, and part of Lombardy. The land was very mountainous, and the inhabitants, when not engaged in predatory expeditions, chiefly supported themselves by cattle-breeding and cutting timber, little attention being paid to agriculture. Some of the valleys, however, were rich and fertile, and produced corn and wine, the latter considered equal to any in Italy. Augustus preferred Raetian wine to any other. Considerable trade was also carried on in pitch, honey, wax and cheese. Little is known of the origin or history of the Raetians, who are described as one of the most powerful and warlike of the Alpine tribes. It is distinctly stated by Livy (v. 33) that they were of Etruscan origin (a view favoured by Niebuhr and Mommsen). A tradition reported by Justin (xx. 5) and Pliny (Nat. Hist. iii. 24, 133) affirmed that they were a portion of that people who had settled in the plains of the Po and were driven into the mountains by the invading Gauls, when they assumed the name of Ractians from their leader Raetus; a more probable derivation, however, is from Celtic rail, "mountain land." Even if their Etruscan origin be accepted, at the time when the land became known to the Romans, Celtic tribes were already in possession of it and had amalgamated so completely with the original inhabitants that, generally speaking, the Raetians of later times may be regarded as a Celtic people, although non-Celtic tribes (Lepontii, Euganei) were settled among them. The Raetians are first mentioned (but only incidentally) by Polybius (xxxiv. 10, 18), and little is heard of them till after the end of the Republic. There is little doubt, however, that they retained their independence until their subjugation in 15 B.C. by Tiberius and Drusus (cf. Horace, Odes, iv. 4 and 14). At first Raetia formed a distinct province, but towards the end of the 1st century A.D. Vindelicia was added to it; hence Tacitus (Germania, 41) could speak of Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg) as a colony of the province of Raetia." The whole province (including Vindelicia) was at first under a military prefect, then under a procurator; it had no standing army quartered in it, but relied on its own native troops and militia for protection. In the reign of Marcus Aurelius it was governed by the commander of the Legio iii. Italica. Under Diocletian it formed part of the diocese of the vicarius Italiae, and was subdivided into Raetia prima and secunda (each under a praeses), the former corresponding to the old Raetia, the latter to Vindelicia. The boundary between them is not clearly defined, but may be

stated generally as a line drawn eastwards from the lacus Brigantinus (Lake of Constance) to the river Oenus (Inn). During the last years of the Western Empire, the land was in a desolate condition, but its occupation by the Ostrogoths in the time of Theodoric, who placed it under a dux, to some extent revived its prosperity. The chief towns of Raetia (excluding Vindelicia) were Tridentum (Trent) and Curia (Coire or Chur). It was traversed by two great lines of Roman roads-one leading from Verona and Tridentum across the Brenner (in which the name of the Brenni has survived) to Oenipons (Innsbruck) and thence to Augusta Vindelicorum; the other from Brigantium (Bregenz) on Lake Constance, by Coire and Chiavenna to Como and Milan.

See P. C. Planta, Das alle Rätien (Berlin, 1872); T. Mommsen in Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, iii. p. 706; J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, i. (2nd ed., 1881) p. 288; L. Steub, Über die Urbewohner Ratiens und ihren Zusammenhang mit den Etruskern (Munich, 1843); J. Jung, Römer und Romanen in den Donaulandern (Innsbruck, 1877); Smith's Dict of Greek and Roman Geography (1873); T. Mommsen, The Roman Provinces (Eng. trans., 1886), i. pp. 16, 161, 196; Mary B. Peaks, The General Civil and Military Administration of Noricum and Raetia (Chicago, 1907).

RAFF, JOSEPH JOACHIM (1822-1882), German composer and orchestral conductor, was born near Zürich, Switzerland, on the 27th of May 1822, and educated chiefly at Schwyz. Here, under the care of the Jesuit fathers, he soon became an excellent classical and mathematical scholar, but received scarcely any instruction in his favourite art of music, in which, nevertheless, he made extraordinary progress through sheer force of natural genius, developed by persevering study which no external obstacles could induce him to discontinue. So successful were his unaided efforts that, when in 1843 he sent some MSS. to Mendelssohn, that warm encourager of youthful talent felt justified in at once recommending him to Breitkopf & Härtel, the Leipzig publishers, who brought out a large selection of his early works. Soon after this he became acquainted with Liszt, who gave him much generous encouragement. He first became personally acquainted with Mendelssohn at Cologne in 1846, and gave up all his other engagements for the purpose of following him to Leipzig, but his intention was frustrated by the great composer's death in 1847. After this disappointment he remained for some time at Cologne, where his attention was alternately devoted to composition and to the preparation of critiques for the periodical Cäcilia. Thus far he was a selftaught artist; but he felt the need of systematic instruction so deeply that, retiring for a time from public life, he entered at Stuttgart upon a long course of severe and uninterrupted study, and with so much success that in 1850 he appeared before the world in the character of an accomplished and highly cultivated musician. Raff now settled for a time in Weimar in order to be near Liszt, Hans von Bülow had already brought him into notice by playing his Concertstück for pianoforte and orchestra in public, and the favour with which this fine work was everywhere received encouraged him to attempt a greater one. During his stay in Stuttgart he had begun the composition of an opera entitled König Alfred, and had good hope of securing its performance at Dresden; but the political troubles with which Germany was then overwhelmed rendered its production in the Saxon capital impossible. At Weimar he was more fortunate. In due time König Alfred was produced there under Liszt's able direction at the court theatre with complete success; and later, in 1870, he wrote his second opera, Dame Kobold, for performance at the same theatre. A third opera, Samson, remained unstaged.

Raff lived at Weimar until 1856, when he obtained a large clientèle at Wiesbaden as a teacher of the pianoforte. In 1859 he married Doris Genast, an actress of high repute, and thenceforward devoted himself with renewed energy to the work of composition, displaying an inexhaustible fertility of invention tempered by great technical skill. He resided chiefly at Wiesbaden till 1877, when he was appointed director of the HochConservatorium at Frankfort, an office which he retained until his death on the 25th of June 1882.

More than 200 of Raff's compositions have been published, in cluding ten symphonies-undoubtedly his finest works-quartets, concertos, sonatas, songs, and examples of nearly every known variety of style; yet he never repeats himself. Notwithstanding his strong love for the romantic school, he is never guilty of extravagance, and, if in his minor works he is sometimes a little commonplace, he never descends to vulgarity. His symphonies Lenore and Im Walde are wonderful examples of musical painting.

RAFFAELLINO DEL GARBO (1466, or perhaps 1476-1524), Florentine painter. His real name was Raffaello Capponi; Del Garbo was a nickname, bestowed upon him seemingly from the graceful nicety (garbo) of his earlier works. He has also been called Raffaello de Florentia, and Raffaello de Carolis. He was a pupil of Filippino Lippi, with whom he remained till 1490, if not later. He showed great facility in design, and excited hopes which the completed body of his works fell short of. He married and had a large family; embarrassments and a haphazard manner of work ensued; and finally he lapsed into a very dejected and penurious condition. Three of his best tempera pictures are in the Berlin Gallery; one of the Madonna standing with her Infant between two musician-, angels, is particularly attractive. We may also name the oilpainting of the "Resurrection" done for the church of Monte Oliveto, Florence, now in the academy of the same city, ordinarily reputed to be Raffaellino's masterpiece; the ceiling of the Caraffa Chapel in the church of the Minerva, Rome; and a "Coronation of the Virgin in the Louvre, which is a production of much merit, though with somewhat over-studied grace. Angelo Allori was his pupil.

RAFFET, DENIS AUGUSTE MARIE (1804-1860), French illustrator and lithographer, was born in Paris in 1804. At an early age he was apprenticed to a wood turner, but took up the study of art at evening classes. He became acquainted with Cabanel, who made him apply his skill to the decoration of china, and with Rudor, from whom he received instruction in lithography, in the practice of which he was to rise to fame. He then entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, but returned definitely to lithography in 1830, when he produced on stone his famous designs of "Lutzen," "Waterloo," "Le bal," "La revue" and "Les adieux de la garnison," by which his reputation became immediately established. Raffet's chief works were his lithographs of the Napoleonic campaigns, from Egypt to Waterloo, vigorous designs that are inspired by ardent patriotic enthusiasm. As an illustrator his activity was prodigious, the list of works illustrated by his crayon amounting to about forty-five, among which are Béranger's poems, the History of the Revolution by Thiers, the History of Napoleon by de Norvins, the great Waller Scott by Defauconpret, the French Plutarch and Frédéric Bérat's Songs. He went to Rome in 1849, was present at the siege of Rome, which he made the subject of some lithographs, and followed the Italian campaign of 1859, of which he left a record in his Episodes de la campagne d'Italie de 1859. His portraits in pencil and water-colour are full of character. He died at Genoa in 1860. In 1893 a monument by Frémiet was unveiled in the Jardin de l'Infante at the Louvre, Paris.

See Raffel, by F. Lhomme (Paris, 1892).

RAFFLE, a special kind of lottery, in which a particular article is put up as the prize, the winner being drawn for by lot out of the number of those who have paid a fixed sum for admission to the drawing; the total amount realized by the sale of the tickets is supposed to approximate to the value of the object raffled for. The word appears in English as early as Chaucer (The Parson's Tale) where it is used in its original sense of a game of dice, the winner being that one who threw three dice all alike, or, next, the highest pair. The Fr. rafle, Med. Lat. rafla, was also used in the sense of a sweeping-off" of the stakes in a game; it has been connected with Ger. raffen, to carry off.

"

RAFFLES, SIR THOMAS STAMFORD (1781-1826), English administrator, founder of Singapore, was born on the 5th of July 1781, on board a merchantman commanded by his father, Benjamin Raffles, when off Port Morant, Jamaica. He received