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become proverbial. Its juice is refreshing and is used in tropical countries as a refrigerant in fever. Some of the species of the same genus, such as P. grandiflora and its varieties, are grown in gardens on rock-work owing to the great beauty and deep colouring of their flowers, the short duration of individual blossoms being compensated for by the abundance with which they are produced.

The treatment will bear reference to any causes which may | parts of the United States the evil qualities of "pussly" have be discovered as associated with the onset of the disease, such as unfavourable hygienic conditions, and nutritive defects should be rectified by suitable diet. The various preparations of iron seem to be the best medicinal remedies in this ailment, while more direct astringents, such as gallic acid, ergot of rye, turpentine or acetate of lead, will in addition be called for in severe cases and especially when haemorrhage occurs. Sir A. Wright considers that in all cases of purpura the coagulationtime of the blood should be estimated. In such cases the time taken for clotting may be increased to three times as long as that taken by normal blood. He therefore advises calcium chloride in order to increase coagulability. In severe haemorrhages, adrenalin is often useful.

PURRAH, PURROH, or PORO, a secret society of Sierra Leone, West Africa. Only males are admitted to its ranks, but two other affiliated and secret associations exist, the Yassi and the Bundu, the first of which is nominally reserved for females, but members of the Purrah are admitted to certain ceremonies. All the female members of the Yassi must be also members of the Bundu, which is strictly reserved to women. Of the three, the Purrah is by far the most important. The entire native population is governed by its code of laws. It primarily represents a type of freemasonry, a "friendly" society to which even infants are temporarily admitted, the ceremony in their case consisting merely of carrying them into the Purrah" bush" and out again. But this side of the Purrah is merged in its larger objects as represented by its two great aspects, the religious and the civil. Under the former, boys join it at puberty, while under the latter it is practically the native governing body, making laws, deciding on war and peace, &c. The Purrah has its special ritual and language, tattooing and symbols, but details are unknown, as the oath of secrecy is always kept. It meets usually in the dry season, between the months of October and May. The rendezvous is in "the bush," an enclosure, separated into apartments by mats and roofed only by the overhanging trees, serving as a club-house. There are three grades, the first for chiefs and "big men," the second for fetish-priests and the third for the crowd. The ceremonies of the Purrah are presided over by the Purrah " devil," a man in fetish dress, who addresses the meeting through a long tube of wood.

The Purrah can place its taboo on anything or anybody;

and as no native would venture to defy its order, much trouble has been caused where the taboo has been laid upon crops. In 1897 the British or local government was compelled to pass a special ordinance absolutely forbidding the imposition of the taboo on all indigenous products. Of the affiliated societies the Yassi appears to some extent to be an association for providing men and women, who believe themselves ill through "fetish," with medical treatment, on payment of certain fees. The women's Bundu is in many ways a replica of the men's Purrah, though without political power.

See T. J. Alldridge, The Sherbro and its Hinterland (1901). PURSE (Late Lat. bursa, adapted from Gr. Búpσa, hide, skin; possibly O. Eng. pusa, bag, has influenced the change from b to p), a small bag for holding money, originally a leather pouch tied at the mouth, but now of various shapes. The great seal of England is borne by the purse-bearer in a purse, usually styled "burse," decorated with the arms of the kingdom, the "burse" being thus one of the insignia of office of the lord chancellor of England. The "privy purse" is the amount of public money set apart in the civil list for the private and personal use of the sovereign (see PRIVY PURSE).

PURSER, the old name for the paymaster of the British and American navies still used in merchant vessels of to-day. In the British navy he was appointed by a warrant from the admiralty and was paid partly by salary and partly by a percentage (10%) on the value of unexpended stores.

PURSLANE, the common name for a small fleshy annual with prostrate stems, entire leaves and small yellow flowers, known botanically as Portulaca oleracea. It is a native of India, which was introduced into Europe as a salad plant, and in some countries has spread so as to become a noxious weed. In certain

PURSUIVANT (O. Fr. porsivant, poursivant, mod. poursuivant, strictly an attendant, from poursuivre, to follow), the name of a member of the third and lowest rank of heraldic officers, formerly an attendant on the heralds. There are four pursuivants in the English Heralds' College, Rouge Croix, Bluemantle, Rouge Dragon and Portcullis; three in the Court of Lyon King of Arms (Scotland), Carrick, Unicorn and March; and four in the court of Ulster King of Arms (Ireland), Athlone and three St Patrick pursuivants. (See HERALD and HERALDRY.)

PURULIA, a town of British India, headquarters of Manbhum district in Bengal, on the Sini-Asansol branch of the BengalNagpur railway. Pop. (1901), 17,291. It is a growing centre of trade.

PURVEYANCE (Lat. providere, to provide), in England in former times the right of the sovereign when travelling through the country to receive food and drink and maintenance generally from his subjects for himself and his retinue. The custom dates from Anglo-Saxon times and is analogous to the right of fodrum, or annona militaris, exercised by the Frankish kings. Although in early times purveyance was reasonable and necessary, enabling the king to make journeys for the purpose of administering justice and discharging the other duties of government, it was liable to grave abuses, and under the later Plantagenet kings it became very oppressive. Provision for the royal needs was interpreted in the widest possible sense, and the right was exercised, not only on behalf of the king, but on behalf of his relatives. Besides victuals it included the compulsory use of horses and carts and even the enforcement of personal labour. Not infrequently no payment was made; when it was it often took the form of tallies, which gave the recipient the right to deduct the amount from any taxes he might have to pay in and they also fixed the price. The abuses of purveyance, which the future. Purveyors were appointed to requisition goods, frequently provoked legislation. Chapter xxviii. of Magna appear to have reached their climax during the reign of Edward I., Carta is directed against them, while further attempts to curb them were made in the Statute of Westminster of 1275 and in the Articuli super cartas of 1300. Purveyance was entirely forbidden by the ordinance of 1311, but in spite of all prohibitions its evils grew and flourished. During the reign of Edward III. ten statutes were directed against it, and by a law of 1362 it was restricted to the personal wants of the king and queen; at the same time the hated name of purveyor was changed to that of buyer, and ready money was ordered to be paid for the articles taken. From this time little was heard about the evils of purveyance until 1604, when the House of Commons petitioned James I., giving some striking illustrations of its hardships. It was asserted that when the royal officials required 200 carts they ordered 800 or 900 to be brought, in order that they might obtain bribes from the owners. Bacon called purveyance "the most common and general abuse of all others in the kingdom." Twice James entered into negotiations with his parliament for commuting his crown rights, of which purveyance was one, for an annual payment, but no arrangement was reached. In 1660, however, the right of purveyance, which had fallen into disuse with the execution of Charles I., was surrendered by Charles II. in return for the grant of an excise on beer and liquors. The custom was exercised by almost all European sovereigns, and in France at least was as oppressive as in England. The word purveyor now means merely a vendor, generally a vendor of food and drink.

See W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England (1896), vol. ii.; H. Hallam, Constitutional History of England (1863); and S. R. Gardiner, History of England (1905), vol. i.

PUSA, a village of British India, in Darbhanga district, Bengal, near the right bank of the Burhi Gandak River; pop. (1901), 4570. It was acquired as a government estate in 1796, and was long used as a stud dépôt and afterwards as a tobacco farm. In 1904 it was selected as the site of a college and laboratory for agricultural research.

PUSEY, EDWARD BOUVERIE (1800-1882), English divine, was born at Pusey near Oxford on the 22nd of August 1800. His father was Philip Bouverie (d. 1828), a younger son of Jacob Bouverie, 1st Viscount Folkestone, and took the name of Pusey on succeeding to the manorial estates at that place. After having been at Eton, he became a commoner of Christ Church, Oxford, and was elected in 1824 to a fellowship at Oriel. He thus became a member of a society which already contained some of the ablest of his contemporaries-among them J. H. Newman and John Keble. Between 1825 and 1827 he studied Oriental languages and German theology at Göttingen. His first work, published in 1828, as an answer to Hugh James Rose's Cambridge lectures on rationalist tendencies in German theology, showed a good deal of sympathy with the German "pietists," who had striven to deliver Protestantism from its decadence; this sympathy was misunderstood, and Pusey was himself accused of holding rationalist views.

In the same year (1828) the duke of Wellington appointed him to the regius professorship of Hebrew with the attached canonry of Christ Church. The misunderstanding of his position led to the publication in 1830 of a second part of Pusey's Historical Enquiry, in which he denied the charge of rationalism. But in the years which immediately followed the current of his thoughts began to set in another direction. The revolt against individualism had begun, and he was attracted to its standard. By the end of 1833 he showed a disposition to make common cause with those who had already begun to issue the Tracts for the Times. "He was not, however, fully associated in the movement till 1835 and 1836, when he published his tract on baptism and started the Library of the Fathers" (Newman's Apologia, p. 136). He became a close student of the fathers and of that school of Anglican divines who had continued, or revived, in the 17th century the main traditions of pre-Reformation teaching. A sermon which he preached before the university in 1843, The Holy Eucharist a Comfort to the Penitent, so startled the authorities by the re-statement of doctrines which, though well known to ecclesiastical antiquaries, had faded from the common view, that by the exercise of an authority which, however legitimate, was almost obsolete, he was suspended for two years from the function of preaching. The immediate effect of his suspension was the sale of 18,000 copies of the condemned sermon; its permanent effect was to make Pusey for the next quarter of a century the most influential person in the Anglican Church, for it was one of the causes which led Newman to sever himself from that communion. The movement, in the actual origination of which he had had no share, came to bear his name: it was popularly known as Puseyism (sometimes as Newmania) and its adherents as Puseyites. His activity, both public and private, as leader of the movement was enormous. He was not only on the stage but also behind the scenes of every important controversy, whether theological or academical. In the Gorham controversy of 1850, in the question of Oxford reform in 1854, in the prosecution of some of the writers of Essays and Reviews, especially of Benjamin Jowett, in 1863, in the question as to the reform of the marriage laws from 1849 to the end of his life, in the Farrar controversy as to the meaning of everlasting punishment in 1877, he was always busy with articles, letters, treatises and sermons. The occasions on which, in his turn, he preached before his university were all memorable; and some of the sermons were manifestoes which mark distinct stages in the history of the High Church party of which he was the leader. The practice of confession in the Church of England practically dates from his two sermons on The Entire Absolution of the Penitent, in 1846, in which the revival of high sacramental doctrine is complemented by the advocacy of a revival of the penitential system which medieval theologians had appended to

it. The sermon on The Presence of Christ in the Holy Eucharist, in 1853, first formulated the doctrine round which almost all the subsequent theology of his followers revolved, and which revolutionized the practices of Anglican worship. Of his larger works the most important are his two books on the EucharistThe Doctrine of the Real Presence (1855) and The Real Presence ..the Doctrine of the English Church (1857); Daniel the Prophet in which he endeavours to maintain the traditional date of that book; The Minor Prophets, with Commentary, his chief contribution to the study of which he was the professor; and the Eirenicon, in which he endeavoured to find a basis of union between the Church of England and the Church of Rome.

In private life Pusey's habits were simple almost to austerity. He had few personal friends, and rarely mingled in general society; though bitter to opponents, he was gentle to those who knew him, and his munificent charities gave him a warm place in the hearts of many to whom he was personally unknown: In his domestic life he had some severe trials; his wife died, after eleven years of married life, in 1839; his only son, who was a scholar like-minded with himself, who had shared many of his literary labours, and who had edited an excellent edition of St Cyril's commentary on the minor prophets, died in 1880, after many years of suffering. From that time Pusey was seen by only a few persons. His strength gradually declined, and he

died on the 16th of September 1882, after a short illness. He was buried at Oxford in the cathedral of which he had been for fifty-four years a canon. In his memory his friends purchased his library, and bought for it a house in Oxford, known as the Pusey House, which they endowed with sufficient funds to maintain three librarians, who were charged with the duty of endeavouring to perpetuate in the university the memory of the principles which he taught.

Pusey is chiefly remembered as the eponymous representative of the earlier phase of a movement which carried with it no small part of the religious life of England in the latter half of the 19th century. His own chief characteristic was an almost unbounded capacity for taking pains. His chief influence was that of a preacher and a spiritual adviser. As a preacher he lacked all the graces of oratory, but compelled attention by his searching and practical earnestness. His correspondence as a spiritual adviser was enormous; his deserved reputation for piety and for solidity of character made him the chosen confessor to whom large numbers of men and women unburdened their doubts and their sins. But if he be estimated apart from his position as the head of a great party, it must be considered that he was more a theological antiquary than a theologian. Pusey in fact was left behind by his followers even in his lifetime. His revival of the doctrine of the Real Presence, coinciding as it did with the revival of a taste for medieval art, naturally led to a revival of the pre-Reformation ceremonial of worship. With this revival of ceremonial Pusey had little sympathy: he at first protested against it (in a university sermon in 1859); and, though he came to defend those who were accused of breaking the law in their practice.of it, he did so on the express ground that their practice was alien to his own. But this revival of ceremonial in its various degrees became the chief external characteristic of the new movement; and "Ritualist" thrust "Puseyite" aside as the designation of those who hold the doctrines for which he mainly contended. On the other hand, the pivot of his teaching was the appeal to primitive antiquity; and in this respect he helped to start inquiry which has since gone far beyond the materials which were open to one of his generation.

See J. Rigg, Character and Life-Work of Dr Pusey (1883); B. W. Savile, Dr Pusey, an Historic Sketch, with Some Account of the Oxford Movement (1883), and especially the Life by Canon Liddon, completed by J. C. Johnston and R. J. Wilson (5 vols., 1893-1899). Newman's Apologia, and other literature of the Oxford Movement.

Pusey's elder brother, PHILIP PUSEY (1799-1855), was a member of parliament and a friend and follower of Sir Robert Peel. He was one of the founders of the Royal Agricultural Society, and was chairman of the implement department of the great exhibition of 1851. He was a fellow

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PUSHBALL, a game played by two sides on a field usually 140 yds. long and 50 yds. wide, with a ball 6 ft. in diameter and 50 lb in weight. The sides usually number eleven each, there being five forwards, two left-wings, two right-wings and two goal-keepers. The goals consist of two upright posts 18 ft. high and 20 ft. apart with a crossbar 7 ft. from the ground. The game lasts for two periods with an intermission. Pushing the ball under the bar counts 5 points; lifting or throwing it over the bar counts 8. A touchdown behind goal for safety counts 2 to the attacking side. The game was invented by M. G. Crane, of Newton, Massachusetts, in 1894, and was taken up at Harvard University the next year, but has never attained any considerable vogue. In Great Britain the first regular game was played at the Crystal Palace in 1902 by teams of eight. The English rules are somewhat different from those obtaining in the United States. Pushball on horseback was introduced in 1902 at Durland's Riding Academy in New York, and has been played in England at the Military Tournament.

PUSHKAR, a town of British India, in Ajmere district, Rajputana, 7 m. N. of Ajmere town. Pop. (1901), 3831. It derives its name from a small lake among the hills, 2389 ft. above the sea, in which Brahma is once said to have bathed as a penIt contains one of the very few temples, in all India, dedicated to Brahma. At the annual celebration (Oct.-Nov.) about 100,000 pilgrims come to bathe in the lake.

ance.

in the southern part of Bessarabia. Pushkin took this as a
premeditated insult, and sent in his resignation; and Count
Vorontzov in his official report requested the government to
remove the poet," as he was surrounded by a society of political
and literary fanatics, whose praises might turn his head and make
him believe that he was a great writer, whereas he was only a
feeble imitator of Lord Byron, an original not much to be com-
mended." The poet quitted Odessa in 1824, and on leaving
wrote a fine Ode to the Sea. Before the close of the year he had
returned to his father's seat at Mikhailovskoe, near Pskov,
where he soon involved himself in trouble on all sides. In his
retirement he devoted a great deal of time to the study of the
old Russian popular poetry, the builinas, of which he became a
great admirer. Recollections of Byron and André Chenier
gave the inspiration to some fine lines consecrated to the latter,
in which Pushkin appeared more conservative than was his wont,
and wrote in a spirit antagonistic to the French Revolution.
In 1825 he published his tragedy Boris Godunov, a bold effort
to imitate the style of Shakespeare. Up to this time the tradi-
tions of the Russian stage, such as it was, had been French.

In 1825 the conspiracy of the Dekabrists broke out. Many of
the conspirators were personal friends of Pushkin, especially
Küchelbecker and Pustchin. The poet himself was to a certain
extent compromised, but he succeeded in getting to his house
at Mikhailovskoe and burning all the papers which might have
been prejudicial to him. Through influential friends he suc-
ceeded in making his peace with the emperor, to whom he was
presented at Moscow soon after his coronation. The story goes
that Nicholas said to Count Bludov on the same evening, “I
have just been conversing with the most witty man in Russia."
In 1828 appeared Poltava, a spirited narrative poem, in which
the expedition of Charles XII. against Peter and the treachery
of the hetman Mazeppa were described. In 1829 Pushkin
again visited the Caucasus, on this occasion accompanying the
expedition of Prince Paskevich. He wrote a pleasing account
of the tour; many of the short lyrical pieces suggested by the
scenery and associations of his visit are delightful, especially
the lines on the Don and the Caucasus. In 1831 Pushkin married
Natalia Goncharov, and in the following year was again attached
to the ministry of foreign affairs, with a salary of 5000 roubles.
He now busied himself with an historical account of the revolt
of the Cossack Pugachev, who almost overthrew the empire of
Catherine and was executed at Moscow in the latter part of the
18th century. While engaged upon this he wrote The Captain's

PUSHKIN, ALEXANDER (1799-1837), Russian poet, was
born at Moscow, on the 7th of June 1799. He belonged to an
ancient family of boyars; his maternal great-grandfather, a
favourite negro ennobled by Peter the Great, bequeathed to him
curly hair and a somewhat darker complexion than falls to the
lot of the ordinary Russian. In 1811 the future poet entered
the newly founded lyceum of Tsarskoe Selo, situated near St
Petersburg. On quitting the lyceum in 1817 he was attached
to the ministry of foreign affairs, and in this year he began the
composition of his Ruslan and Ly'udmila, a poem which was
completed in 1820. Meanwhile Pushkin mixed in all the gayest
society of the capital, and it seemed as if he would turn out a
mere man of fashion instead of a poet. But a very daring Ode
to Liberty written by him had been circulated in manuscript in
St Petersburg. This production having been brought to the
notice of the governor, the young author only escaped a journey
to Siberia by accepting an official position at Kishinev in Bess-Daughter, one of the best of his prose works. In 1832 was
arabia, in southern Russia. If we follow the chronological order
of his poems, we can trace the enthusiasm with which he greeted
the ever-changing prospects of the sea and the regions of the
Danube and the Crimea.

At this time Pushkin was, or affected to be, overpowered
by the Byronic "Weltschmerz." Having visited the baths of
the Caucasus for the re-establishment of his health in 1822, he |
felt the inspiration of its magnificent scenery, and composed
The Prisoner of the Caucasus, narrating the story of the love of a
Circassian girl for a youthful Russian officer. This was followed
by the Fountain of Bakhchisarai, which tells of the detention of
a young Polish captive, a Countess Potocka, in the palace of the
khans of the Crimea. About the same time he composed some
interesting lines on Ovid, whose place of banishment, Tomi, was
not far distant. To this period belongs also the Ode to Napoleon,
which is inferior to the fine poems of Byron and Manzoni, or
indeed of Lermontov, on the same subject. In the Lay concern-
ing the Wise Oleg we see how the influence of Karamzin's
History had led the Russians to take a greater interest in the
early records of their country. The next long poem was the
Gipsies (Tzuigani), an Oriental tale of love and vengeance, in
which Pushkin has admirably delineated these nomads, whose
strange mode of life fascinated him. During his stay in southern
Russia he allowed himself to get mixed up with the secret
societies then rife throughout the country. He also became
embroiled with his chief, Count Vorontzov, who sent him to
report upon the damages which had been committed by locusts I

completed the poem Eugene Onyegin, in which the author
modelled his style upon the lighter sketches of Byron in the
Italian manner. Yet no one can accuse Pushkin of want of
nationalism in this poem: it is Russian in every fibre.

In 1837 the poet, who had been long growing in literary
reputation, fell mortally wounded in a duel with Baron George
Heckeren d'Anthès, the adopted son of the Dutch minister then
resident at the court of St Petersburg. D'Anthès, a vain and
frivolous young man, had married a sister of the poet's wife.
Notwithstanding this he aroused Pushkin's jealousy by some
attentions which he paid Natalia; but the grounds for the poet's
anger, it must be confessed, do not appear very great. Pushkin
died, after two days' suffering, on the afternoon of Friday the
10th of February. D'Anthès was tried by court-martial and
expelled the country. In 1880 a statue of the poet was erected
at the Tver Barrier at Moscow, and fêtes were held in his honour,
on which occasion many interesting memorials of him were
exhibited to his admiring countrymen and a few foreigners who
had congregated for the festivities. Pushkin left four children;
his widow was afterwards married to an officer in the army,
named Lanskoi; she died in 1863.

Pushkin's poetical tales are spirited and full of dramatic power. The influence of Byron is undoubtedly seen in them, but they are not imitations, still less is anything in them plagiarized. Boris Godunov is a fine tragedy; on the whole Eugene Onyegin must be considered Pushkin's masterpiece. Here we have a great variety of styles-satire, pathos and humour mixed

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together. The character-painting is good, and the descriptions | considerable administrative independence, including the right of scenery introduced faithful to nature. The poem in many places reminds us of Byron, who himself in his mixture of the pathetic and the humorous was a disciple of the Italian school. Pushkin also wrote a great many lyrical pieces. Interspersed among the poet's minor works will be found many epigrams, but some of the best composed by him were not so fortunate as to pass the censorship, and must be read in a supplementary volume published at Berlin. As a prose writer Pushkin has considerable merits. Besides his History of the Revolt of Pugachev, which is perhaps too much of a compilation, he published a small volume of tales under the nom de plume of Ivan Byelkin. These all show considerable dramatic power: the best are The Captain's Daughter, a tale of the times of Catherine II.; The Undertaker, a very ghostly story, which will remind the English reader of some of the tales of Edgar Poe; The Pistol Shot; and The Queen of Spades.

The academy of St Petersburg has recently' issued a complete edition of the works of Pushkin, including his letters. See the bibliography in the editions of Gennadi (7 vols., St Petersburg, 1861) and Annenkov (6 vols., St Petersburg, 1855). (W. R. M.)

PUSHTU, the language of the Pathan races of Afghanistan and the North-West Frontier province of India. It belongs to the Iranian group of the Indo-European languages, but possesses many Panjabi words. In Afghanistan it is the dominant language, but is not spoken west of the Helmund. In India it has two main dialects, the northern, hard or Pukhtu, and the southern, soft or Pushtu. The dividing line of the two dialects runs eastwards from Thal through the Kohat district almost to the Indus, but it then turns northwards, as the speech of the Akhora Khattaks belongs to the Pushtu or southern dialect. Thus Pukhtu is spoken in Bajour, Swat and Buner, and by the Yusufzais, Bangash, Orakzais, Afridis and Mohmands; while Pushtu is spoken by the Waziris, Khattaks, Marwats and various minor tribes in the south. The language division corresponds roughly with the tribal system of the Pathans, who are aristocratic in the north and democratic in the south. The classical dialect of Pukhtu is that of the Yusufzais, in which the earliest works in the language were composed. The Orakzai dialect differs from that of the Afridis, in that it is broader but less guttural and spoken more rapidly. The standard dialect is that of Peshawar. The literature is richest in poetry, Abdur Rahman, of the 17th century, being the best-known poet. Pushtu was spoken in the North-West Frontier province in 1901 by 1,142,011 persons, or 54% of the population.

See Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India; Roos-Keppel, Manual of Pushtu (1901); Lorimer, Grammar of Waziri Pushlu (1902). PUTEAUX, a north-western suburb of Paris, on the left bank of the Seine, 4 m. from the centre of the city. Pop. (1906), 28,718. Puteaux has a church of the 16th century with good stained glass windows. There is a fort on the Seine.

PUTEOLI (mod. Pozzuoli, q.v.), an ancient town of Campania, Italy, on the northern shore of the Bay of Puteoli, a portion of the Bay of Naples, from which it is 6 m. W. The statement made by Stephanus of Byzantium and Jerome, that the city was founded under the name of Dicaearchia by a colony of Samians about 520 B.C., is probably correct, for, though in the territory of Cumae, it does not appear to have been occupied previous to 520, Misenum having been the original port of Cumae. On the other hand, Cumae probably extended her supremacy over it not long after. Its history in the Samnite period is unknown; but the coins of Fistelia (or Fistlus in Oscan) probably belong to Puteoli, as Mommsen thought. Nor do we know anything of its history between 334 (when it probably became a civilas sine suffragio under Roman domination, shortly afterwards receiving, in 318, a praefectus iure dicundo) and 215, when the Romans introduced a garrison of 6000 men to protect the town from Hannibal, who besieged it in vain for three days in 214. In 194 a Roman colony of 300 men was established. The lex parieti faciundo, an interesting inscription of 105 B.C. relating to some building works in front of the temple of Serapis, shows that Puteoli had'

to date such a public document by the names of its own magistrates. Sulla retired to Puteoli after his resignation of the dictatorship in 79, and ten days before his death reconciled the disputes of the citizens by giving them a constitution. Cicero had a house in Puteoli itself, and a villa on the edge of the Lucrine lake (which, though nearer to Puteoli, was in the territory of Cumae), and many prominent men of the republic possessed country houses in the neighbourhood of Puteoli (see BAIAE; AVERNUS LACUS; LUCRINUS LACUS; MISENUM). In the Civil War it sided with Pompey, and later on with Brutus and Cassius. Nero admitted the old inhabitants to the privileges of the colony, thus uniting in one the two previously distinct communities. In 61 St Paul landed here, and spent seven days before leaving for Rome (Acts xxviii. 13). Vespasian, as a reward for its having taken his part, gave the town part of the territory of Capua, and installed more colonists there-whence it took the title Colonia Flavia, which it retained till the end of the empire.

The remains of Hadrian, who died at the neighbouring town of Baiae, were buried at Puteoli, and Antoninus Pius, besides erecting a temple to his memory on the site of Cicero's villa, instituted sacred games to be held in the city every five years. Commodus held the title of duumvir quinquennalis. It was mainly, however, as a great commercial port that Puteoli was famous in ancient times. It joined with Naples to erect one of the finest porticoes of Constantinople at the time of its construction. A letter of Symmachus gives us interesting details as to public corn distributions of the 4th century, throwing some light on the population. Like Ostia, Puteoli was considered a special port of Rome, and, on account of the safety and convenience of its harbour, it was preferred to Ostia for the landing of the more costly and delicate wares. As at Ostia, the various gilds were of considerable importance, but we find no centonarii or fabri, perhaps owing to its relations with the East, where these popular gilds were prohibited. Puteoli was preferred to Naples, (a) as being in Roman territory, (b) because the customs duty was only leviable once, not twice as it would have been at Naplesonce by the local authorities, and once by the Roman authorities on entrance into Roman territory. It exported iron from Elba, mosaics, pottery, manufactured locally with earth from Ischia (which was in considerable demand until 1883), sulphur (which indeed was extracted in the neighbourhood until the 18th century), probably alum (which is still worked), perfumes, pozzolana earth (taking its name from the place), cretaceous earth for mixing with grain (alica) from the Leucogaean hills, glass cups engraved with views of Puteoli, mineral dyes (the blue invented by one Vestorius is mentioned by Vitruvius and the purple of Puteoli by Pliny, as being of special excellence), &c., but not agricultural products, except certain brands of Campanian wine; but its imports were considerably greater. During the Punic Wars it was still a naval port, but in the latter part of the 2nd century B.C. it became the greatest commercial harbour of Italy and we find Lucilius about 125 B.C. placing it next in importance to Delos, then the greatest harbour of the ancient world. We note a little later the existence of merchants of Puteoli in the East. Under the empire we find Eastern cults taking root here sooner than in Rome. The construction of the harbour of Claudius at the mouth of the Tiber adversely affected Puteoli. Nero's scheme for the construction of a canal from Lake Avernus to Ostia would have restored the balance in its favour (though it certainly could not have been continuous all the way to Rome with the means of engineering then available).

The corn supply of Rome came partly through Puteoli, partly through Ostia. Seneca (Epist. 77) describes the joy of the inhabitants in the spring when the fleet of corn vessels from Alexandria was seen approaching, and Statius tells us that the crew of the ship which arrived first made libations to Minerva mation as to the local manufacture. Some fragments came from A mass of pottery débris found in 1875 gave important inforArretium, others, not quite so good, were of local work, but of the same style.

when passing the promontory which bore her name (the Punta Campanella at Sorrento). It is uncertain what official had the charge of the corn supply at Puteoli under the Republic, but in the time of Antoninus Pius we find an Aug(usti) dis(pensator) a frumento Puteolis et Ostis dependent no doubt on a procurator annonae of the two ports.

Claudius established here, as at Ostia, a cohort of vigiles as a fire-brigade. Brundusium was similarly protected. There was also a station of the imperial post, sailors of the imperial fleet at Misenum being apparently employed as couriers. The artificial mole was probably of earlier date than the reign of Augustus (possibly 2nd century B.C.); and by that time at any rate there were docks large enough to contain the vessels employed in bringing the obelisks from Egypt. Remains of the piles of the mole still exist, and are popularly known as Caligula's Bridge, from the mistaken idea that they belong to the temporary structure which that emperor flung across the bay from the mole at Puteoli to the shore at Baiae. Inscriptions record repairs to the breakwater by Antoninus Pius in 139 in fulfilment of a promise made by Hadrian before his death. Alaric (410), Genseric (455) and Totila (545) successively laid Puteoli in ruins. The restoration effected by the Byzantines was partial and shortlived.

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The original town of Puteoli was situated on the narrow hill of the Castello. Scanty traces of fortifications of the Roman period seem to have come to light in recent tunnelling operations. The streets of the old town probably, as at Naples, preserve the ancient alignThere are also traces of the division of the lands in the immediate vicinity of the town into squares by parallel paths (decumani and cardines) at regular intervals of 11 Roman feet, postulating as the basis of the division a square with a side of 10,000 Roman feet, divided into 81 smaller squares-an arrangement which could not have existed at Puteoli, and must have arisen elsewhere. It is remarkable as being contrary to Roman surveyors' practice, according to which the basis of division is the intersection at right angles of the cardo and decumanus, which would give an even (not an odd) number of smaller squares. The size of the ancient town at its largest can be roughly fixed by its tombs. Inscriptions show that it was divided into regiones. The market hall (macellum) (compare the similar buildings at Pompeii and elsewhere), generally known as the temple of Serapis, from a statue of that deity found there, was excavated in 1750. It consisted of a rectangular court surrounded by chambers on the outside and with a colonnade of thirty-six columns of cipollino (Carystian) marble and grey granite. The three columns still standing, some 39 ft. high, belong to a façade of four still higher columns erected in front of the absidal cella or sanctuary, with three niches for statues no doubt of the protecting deities. The borings of marine shellfish visible in these columns between 11 and 19 ft. from the ground, and the various levels of pavement in the macellum help to indicate, according to Günther's researches (Archaeologia, lvii. 499; Earth Movements in the Bay of Naples, 1903), that the level of the shore fell very slightly during the Roman period, when it was some 20 ft. higher than at present; that it fell more rapidly during the middle ages, was then raised again early in the 16th century (before the upheaval of the Monte Nuovo in 1538) and has since been sinking gradually. In the centre was a round colonnade with sixteen columns of Numidian marble (giallo antico) now in the theatre of the palace at Caserta. Dubois (op. cit., 286 sqq.) reproduces important drawings and a description made by the architect Caristie in 1820. The well-preserved amphitheatre, the subterranean parts of which below the arena are intact, with a main passage down, the centre, a curved passage all round with holes for trap doors in its roof, and numerous small chambers, also with trap doors in their vaulted roofs for admitting the wild beasts, whose cages were on the other side of the curved passage, to the arena, are especially interesting. There were also arrangements for flooding the arena, but these can only have been in use before the construction of the greater part of the subterranean portion with its cages, &c. The whole amphitheatre measures 489 by 381 ft., and the arena 245 by 138 ft. Of the upper portion the interior is well preserved, but very little of the external arcades remains. It was not constructed before the reign of Vespasian, for inscriptions record that it was built by the Colonia Flavia. There was, however, an amphitheatre in the reign of Nero, who himself fought in games given there, and the glass cup of Odemira shows two. A ruin still exists which may be doubtfully attributed to the latter (Dubois, p. 192). Remains of thermae also exist in various places, the mineral springs having been much used in Roman times. The cathedral of S. Proculus (containing the tomb of the musician Pergolesi, d. 1736) is built into a temple of Augustus, erected by L. Calpurnius, 6 columns of which, with their Corinthian capitals, still exist. Other ruins of a circus, of tombs, &c., exist, and there are also considerable remains of villas in the neighbourhood.

Puteoli was supplied with water by two aqueducts, both subter

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ranean, one of which, bringing water from springs in the immediate neighbourhood, is still in use, while the other is a branch of the Serino aqueduct, which was probably taken to Misenum by Agrippa. Several remains of reservoirs exist; one very large one is now called Piscina di Cardito. Among the inscriptions one of the most interesting is the letter of the Tyrian merchants resident at Puteoli to the senate of Tyre, written in 174, asking the latter to undertake the payment of the rent of their factory, and the reply of the senate promising to do so. (This is the interpretation adopted by Dubois, pp. 86, 92, following Dittenberger.) We find other Eastern merchants resident hereand from Asia Minor, Greece, &c. We find far less trace of commermerchants from Heliopolis, Berytus (Beirut), Nabataea, Palestine, cial relations with the West, though there was considerable importation of commodities from southern Spain-wine, oil, metals, salt fish, &c., while a good deal of pottery was exported to Spain and southern Gaul. We find, indeed, two cases of men who held municipal honours at Puteoli and in the Rhone valley. Puteoli was reached direct by a road from Capua traversing the hills to the north by a cutting (the Montagna Spaccata), which went on to Neapolis, and by the Via Domitiana from Rome and Cumae. There Pausilipon, made under Augustus. It is not possible to trace the was also a short cut from Puteoli to Neapolis by the tunnel of episcopal see of Puteoli with any certainty further back than the beginning of the 4th century. In 305, S. Januarius (S. Gennaro, the patron saint of Naples), bishop of Beneventum, S. Proculus, patron of Puteoli, and others, suffered martyrdom at Puteoli. See the careful study by C. Dubois, Pouzzoles antique (Paris, 1907) (Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome, fasc. 98). (T. As.)

PUTLITZ, GUSTAV HEINRICH GANS, EDLER ZU (18211890), German author, was born at Retzien near Perleberg in West Prignitz, on the 20th of March 1821. He studied law at Berlin and Heidelberg, and was attached to the provincial government at Magdeburg from 1846-1848. In 1853 he married Gräfin Elisabeth von Königsmark, and lived on his estate until 1863, when he became director of the Court theatre at Schwerin. This post he left in 1867, was for a short time chamberlain to the crown prince of Prussia, afterwards the emperor Frederick, and from 1873 to 1889 successfully directed the Court theatre at Karlsruhe. He died at Retzien on the 5th of September 1890. Putlitz made his debut as a writer with a volume of romantic stories, Was sich der Wald erzählt (1850), which attained great popularity (fifty editions) and found many imitators; but he was most successful in his comedies, notably Badekuren (1859); Das Herz vergessen (1853); and Spielt nicht mit dem Feuer! (1887), while of his narratives Die Alpenbraut (1870) and Walpurgis (1870) are distinguished by refined terseness of style and delicacy of portraiture.

A selection of his works, Ausgewählte Werke, was published in 6 vols. in Berlin (1872-1877), and a supplementary volume in 1888; his comedies, Lustspiele, appeared in two series of 4 vols. each (1851-1860 and 1869-1872). See E. zu Putlitz, Gustav zu Pullitz. Ein Lebensbild aus Briefen (3 vols., 1894-1895).

in Salem Village (now Danvers), Massachussetts, on the 7th of PUTNAM, ISRAEL (1718-1790), American soldier, was born January 1718. His first American ancestor (of the same family as George Puttenham), came from Aston Abbotts, Bucks, and was one of the first settlers of Salem Village. In 1740 he removed to a farm in the present townships of Pomfret and Brooklyn, Connecticut. Here in the winter of 1742-1743 he went down into a wolf den (still shown in Pomfret) and at close quarters killed a huge wolf. Putnam took an active part in the French and Indian War, enlisting as a private in 1755 and rising to the rank of major in March 1758. He was conspicuous for personal courage and for skill in Indian warfare, and was the hero of numerous exploits. In 1764, during Pontiac's conspiracy, he commanded the Connecticut troops (five companies) in the expedition under Colonel John Bradstreet for the relief of Detroit. He was a prominent member of the Sons of Liberty and a leader in the opposition to the Stamp Act; was elected to the general assembly of Connecticut in 1766 and 1767; and increased his political influence by opening a tavern, "The General Wolfe," in Brooklyn, Conn. In August 1774, as chairman of the committee of correspondence for Brooklyn parish, he went with the committee's message and contributions to the Boston Patriots; and in October became lieutenant-colonel of the 11th regiment of Connecticut militia. News of the fighting at

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