15. Houses may be purged of evil spirits by sweeping them out with a broom, or by many of the cathartic media above enumerated for purification of the person. 16. By use of salt. 17. By celibacy, virginity and abstention from sexual intercourse. 18. By confession or expulsion of the evil in speech. 19. By spitting and blowing the nose in order to evacuate devils harbouring in the head and throat. 20. By spittle, as in the baptismal rite of the Latins. 21. By passing between fires or jumping through fire. 22. By sitting or standing on or wearing the fleece of a holy animal. 23. By beating and stinging with ants, by branding, tattooing, knocking out of teeth. 24. By circumcision and other more serious mutilations. 'In many of these rites the old man contaminated in some way is put off and the mystic is reborn. This idea of rebirth is especially prominent in the blood-bath of the Taurobolium (No. 6) and in Christian baptism (q.v.); also in the initiatory rites of various savages who even make a pretence of killing their boys and bringing them back to life again. (F. C. C.) PURIM, a Jewish festival held on the 14th and 15th of Adar, the last month of the Jewish calendar. According to Jewish tradition it is held in celebration of the deliverance of the Jews from the massacre plotted against them by their enemy Haman in the time of Artaxerxes, who fixed upon the former date by casting "lots" (=Hebrew loan-word Purim). It is preceded by a fast on the 13th day of Adar, known as the Fast of Esther, based upon Esther iv. 16. Purim is the carnival of the Jewish year. Friends exchange gifts, and thus occasion is taken to relieve the necessities of the poor in the most considerate manner under the guise of gifts. The children masquerade, and their parents are enjoined to drink wine until they cannot distinguish between blessing Mordecai and cursing Haman. The Megillah or Roll of Esther is read both at home and in the synagogue, and wherever, during the reading, the name of Haman is mentioned, it is accompanied with tramping the feet. In former times Haman was burnt in effigy, holding on to a ring and swinging from one side of the fire to the other (see L. Ginzberg, Geonica, 1909, pp. 1, 419; Davidson, Parody, pp. 21-22). This custom, which is still observed among the Jews of Caucasia (Tchorni, Sepher ha-Masaoth, pp. 191-192), is very ancient, as it is mentioned in the Talmud (Sanhedrin 64). From the 17th century onward Purim plays were performed mostly by the children, who improvised a dramatic version of the story of Esther. This grew to be the characteristic folkdrama of the ghetto, and has not died out in eastern Europe to the present day. Much ingenuity has been spent upon the name and origin of the feast. As regards the name, we may dismiss at once the suggestions of J. Fuerst (Kanon des Alten Testaments) that it is derived from the Persian bahar, "spring," and of Hitzig (Geschichte Israels), who derives it from the modern Arabic Phur," the New Year." These conjectures were made in the pre-scientific era of philology. Scarcely more is to be said in favour of the suggestion made by Von Hammer; but better known in connexion with the name of Lagarde, who connects the name Purim with the old Zoroastrian festival of the dead, entitled Farwardigan. Lagarde, who is followed by Renan, connects this form with the LXX. variant of the Hebrew (poupal); but there is absolutely nothing about Purim which suggests any relation with a festival of the dead. Graetz's suggestion (Monais. Jud. xxxv. 10 seq.) that it is derived from the Hebrew purah, meaning wine-press (Is. Ixiii. 3), obviously fails to connect a spring festival of joyousness with the autumn vine harvest. Zimmern (ZATW xl. 157 seq.) connects Purim with the puchru or assembly of the gods, which forms part of the Babylonian New Year festival Zagmuku, but the inserted guttural is against the identification. The most plausible etymology connects the name with the Assyrian puru, either in the sense of "turn of office at the beginning of the New Year or in that of" pebble" used for votes or lots, as with the Greek pos. It is a curious coincidence, to say the least, that Dieulafoy found among the ruins of the Memnonium at Susa (the ancient Shushan, given as the scene of the events narrated in the Book of Esther) a quadrangular prism bearing different numbers on its four faces. This etymological connexion, suggested by Jensen (Kosmologie, 84), brings the festival of Purim into close relation with the Babylonian New Year festival known as Zagmuku, in which one of the most prominent ceremonials was the celebration of the assembly of the gods under the presidency of Marduk (Merodach) for the purpose of determining the fates of the New Year. Meissner (ZDMG, i. 296 seq.) and others have suggested that the drunkenness and masquerading current at the period of Purim are directly derived from the general period of licence allowed at the Sacaca festival of the Babylonian New Year. Even the fact that this latter was celebrated on the first of Nisan, or a fortnight after the Jewish date for Purim, is confirmed by the Book of Esther itself, which states that "In the first month, which is the month Nisan, they cast Pur, that is, the lot, before Haman" (Esther iii. 7-ix. 26). The change of date may have been made in order not to conflict with the Passover on the 15th of Nisan. The connexion that has been suggested between the names of Mordecai and Esther and those of the Assyrian deities Marduk and Ishtar would be a further strong confirmation of the proposed etymology and derivation of the feast (see ESTHER). Going still further, J. G. Frazer connects Purim with the whole series of spring festivals current in western Asia, in which the old god of vegetation was put to death and a new human representative of him elected and allowed to have royal and divine rights, so as to promote the coming harvest (Golden Bough, 2nd. ed., vol. iii. p. 154 seq.). The death of the god, he suggests, is represented by the Fast of Esther on the 13th of Adar, the day before Purim, while the rejoicing on Purim itself, and the licence accompanying it, recall the union of the god and goddess of vegetation, of which he sees traces in the relations of Mordecai and Esther. There may possibly be "survivals" of the influence of some such celebrations both on the Book of Esther and on the ceremonies of Purim, but there is absolutely no evidence that the Jews took over the interpretation of these festivals with their celebration. Nor is there any record of royal privileges attaching to any person at the period of Purim such as occurs in the festivals with which it is supposed to be connected by Frazer. His further suggestion, therefore, that the ironical crowning of Jesus with the crown of thorns and the inscription over the Cross, together with the selection of Barabbas, had anything to do with the with the Passover rather than Purim would alone be sufficient to feast of Purim, must be rejected. The connexion of the Passion nullify the suggestion. However, it is practically certain, both from the etymology of the word Purim and from the resemblance of the festivals, that the feast, as represented in the Book of Esther, was borrowed from the Persians, who themselves appeared to have adapted it from the Babylonians. This is confirmed by the fact that the Book of Esther contains several Persian words and shows throughout a familiarity with Persian conditions. This renders it impossible to accept Haupt's suggestion that Purim is connected Judas Maccabaeus over the Syrian general Nicanor at Adasa (161 B.C.) with the celebration of Nicanor's Day, to celebrate the triumph of on the 13th of Adar, since this is the date of the Fast of Esther and, besides, the Second Book of Maccabees, which refers to Nicanor's Day, speaks of it as the day before Mordecai's Day (2 Macc. xvi. 36). If, as seems probable, the earlier Greek version of the Book of Esther was made about 179 B.C. (Swete, Introduction of the Old Testament in Greek, p. 25), this suggestion of the connexion of Purim with the Maccabean period made by Haupt and, before him, by Willrich, falls to the ground. and Egypt should have accepted a purely Persian or Babylonian At the same time it is difficult to understand why Jews in Palestine festival long after they had ceased to be connected with the Persian Empire. One can understand its adoption during, or soon after, the reign of Cyrus, whose policy was so favourable to the Jews, and it might easily have become as popular among them as Christmas tends to become among modern Jews. When the exiles returned from Babylon they probably brought back with them the practice of keeping the festival. The date at which the feast of Purim was first adopted by the Jews from their Persian neighbours would be definitely determined if we knew the date of the Book of Esther. The festival is first mentioned in 2 Macc. xv. 36, and from that time onwards has formed one of the most popular festivals of the Jewish calendar. It became customary to burn an effigy of Haman at the conclusion of the feast, and this was regarded as in some ways an attack on Christianity and was therefore forbidden by the Theodosian code, XVI. viii. 18. This prohibition may have been due to the fact mentioned by Socrates (Hist. eccles. vii.) that, in 416 A.D., the Jews of Inmester, a town in Syria, illtreated a Christian child during some Purim pranks and caused his death. It has even been suggested that this gave rise to the myth of the blood accusation in which Jews are alleged to sacrifice a Christian child at Passover; but this is unlikely, since it has never been suggested that this crime was committed in connexion with Purim. But Jewish sources of the 10th century state that the custom of burning an effigy of Haman was still kept up at that time (L. Ginzberg, Geonica, ii.), and this is confirmed by Albiruni (Chronology, tr. Sachau, 273) and Makrizi, and indeed the custom was carried on down to the present century by Jewish children, who treated Haman as a sort of Guy Fawkes. Frazer suggests (loc. cit. 172) that this is a survival of the burning of the man-god, like Hercules or Sandan, who again represented the old spirit of vegetation which was dying away in spring to revive with the new vegetation. The earliest mention, however, of this burning of Haman in effigy cannot be traced back earlier than the Talmud in the 5th century. Esther. the Middle Ages; Lagarde, Purim, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der 31, CN CH(8) (4) (9) Purin. In connexion with Purim many quaint customs were introPURIN, CHINA, in chemistry, the name given by Emil duced by the Jews of later times. All means are adapted to Fischer to the parent substance of a large group of compounds, increase the hilarity of the two days, which are filled with the more important of which are sarcine, xanthine, uric acid, feasting, dancing, singing and making merry generally. In adenine, paraxanthine, guanine, theophylline, theobromine and caffeine. Its formula is shown in the Germany it was even customary for men to dress up as women, (1)N=CH(6) and women as men, against the command of Deut. xxii. 5. In Frankfort the women were allowed to open their lattice windows in the synagogue in honour of the deliverance brought about by Execration of Haman, as the typical persecutor of the Jews, took various forms. In Germany wooden mallets were used in the synagogue to beat the benches when Haman's name was read out from the scroll of Esther, and during the festivities these mallets were sometimes used on the heads of the bystanders. Cakes were made of a certain shape to be eaten by the children, which were called, in Germany, Hamantaschen (Haman-pockets) and Hamanohren (Haman-ears), and in Italy, Orecchie d'Aman. In Italy a puppet representing Haman was set up on high amidst shouts of vengeance and blowing of trumpets. In Caucasus the women made a wooden block to represent Haman, which, on being discovered by the men on their return to the synagogue, was thrown into the fire. Besides gifts to friends, parents made Purim gifts to their children, especially in the form of Purim cakes. To preside over these festivities it was customary to have a master of the ceremonies, who was called king in Provence, somewhat after the manner of the Feast of Fools. In later days the same function was performed by the Purim Rabbi, who often indulged in parodies of the ritual. With Purim is connected the only trace of a true folk-drama among Jews. The first Spanish drama written by Jews was entitled "Esther," by Solomon Usque and Lazaro Gratiano, published in 1567; and there is another entitled "Comedia famosa de Aman y Mordechay," produced anonymously in Leiden in 1699. Among the German Jews Purim-Spiele were frequent and can be traced back to the 16th century, where there is reference to their being regularly performed at Tannhausen. The earliest one of these printed was entitled "AhasweroshSpiel," appeared at Frankfort in 1708, and was reprinted by Schudt in Juedische Merck-Wuerdigkeiten, ii. 314 seq. These were followed by a large number of similar reproductions, none of any great merit, but often showing ingenuity in parodying more serious portions of the Jewish ritual (Davidson, Parody, PP. 27, 50, 199-203). Besides the general festival of Purim, various communities of Jews have instituted special local Purims to commemorate occasions when they have been saved from disaster. Thus the Jews of Cairo celebrated Purim on the 28th of Adar in memory of their being miraculously saved from the persecution of Ahmed Pasha in 1524. The Jews of Frankfort celebrate their special Purim on the 20th of Adar because of their deliverance from persecution by Fettmilch in 1616. The Jews of Algiers similarly celebrated the repulse of the emperor Charles V. in 1541, by which they escaped coming once more into the yoke of the Spaniards. Similar occasions for rejoicing were introduced by individuals into their families to celebrate their escape from danger. Thus Abraham Danzig celebrated in this manner his escape from the results of an explosion of a powder magazine at Wilna in 1804. Rabbi Enoch Altschul of Prague recorded his own escape on the 22nd of Tebet 1623 in a special roll or megillah, which was to be read by his family on that date with rejoicing similar to the general Purim. David Brandeis of Jung-Bunzlau in Bohemia was saved from an accusation of poisoning on the 10th of Adar 1731, and instituted a similar family Purim celebration in consequence.. inset, the positions taken by sub- (2)HC(5)C·NH(7) TT N:CH N:CH N:CH N:CH Purin crystallizes in microscopic needles, which melt at 216° C. It possesses the properties of both an acid and a base. It is characterized by its ready solubility in water and by its stability towards oxidizing agents. Oxypurins.-Sarcine or hypoxanthine, C.H.NO, is 6-oxypurin. It is found in many animal liquids and organs and in the seeds of many plants, and was discovered by J. Scherer in milk (Ann. 1850, 73, p. 328) and by A. Strecker in muscle. It crystallizes in needles which decompose at 150° C. It was synthesized by E. Fischer (Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2228) by heating 2-6-8-trichlorpurin with aqueous hydriodic acid. Its aqueous solution shows acid properties, decomposcaustic potash, and reducing the dichlorhypoxanthine so obtained by ing carbonates. It also forms a hydrochloride, CH.NO·HCI-H2O. When oxidized by hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate it yields alloxan and urea, whilst with potassium permanganate it gives oxalic acid. 3-Methylhypoxanthine was synthesized by W. Traube and F. Winter (Arch. Pharm., 1906, 244, p. 11), whilst 8-oxypurin was obtained by E. Fischer and L. Ach in 1897 (Ber., 30, p. 2213), and by Q. Isay (Ber., 1906, 39. p. 251). by Marcet in a urinary calculus; it also occurs in various animal The isonitroso derivative of this CH. CO-CH2 CO-CH, CỌC:NOH COCNH, CÓ CẢNH The isomeric 6.8-dioxypurin was prepared by E. Fischer and 1-Methylxanthine was found in urine by M. Krüger and G. Salomon (Zeit. physiol. Chem., 1897, 24, p. 364); 3-methylxanthine was obtained by E. Fischer and F. Ach (Ber., 1898, 30, 1980) from 3-methyl uric acid; and 7-methylxanthine or heteroxanthine, which is found in human urine, may be obtained from theobromine (E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2400; see also ibid., 1898, 31, p. 117). Theophylline, C(CH) H2O2N4, or 1-3-dimethyl-2-6-dioxypurin, was isolated by A. Kossel from tea-leaves (Ber., 1888, 21, p. 2164). It was synthesized by E. Fischer and L. Ach (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 3135) from 1 dimethyl uric acid, which on treatment with phosphorus pentachloride yields chlortheophylline, from which theophylline is obtained by reduction with hydriodic acid. W. Traube (Ber., 1900, 33. p. 3035) formed the nitroso derivative of iminodimethyl barbi-alcoholic potash yields ethoxy-caffeine, which readily hydrolyses to turic acid (obtained by the action of phosphorus oxychloride on cyanacetic acid and dimethyl urea), and reduced it by ammonium sulphide to 1.3-dimethyl-4-5-diamino-2-6-dioxypyrimidine, the formyl derivative of which, when heated to 250° C., loses the elements of water and yields theophylline (cf. Xanthine). It behaves as a weak base. When oxidized by potassium chlorate and hydrochloric acid it yields dimethylalloxan. Its silver salt on methylation yields caffeine. it to amalic acid or tetramethyl alloxantin (Fr. Rochleder, Ann. | 1849, 71, p. 1), and that hydrolysis with baryta gave caffeidine (A. Strecker, Ann., 1862, 123, p. 360), which could be further hydrolysed to sarcosine, methylamine, formic acid and carbon dioxide (O. Schultzen, Zeit. f. Chemie, 1867, p. 614). Fischer confirmed these results and showed further that oxidation with chlorine water gave monomethyl urea and dimethyl alloxan, pointing to the pres ence of three methyl groups in the molecule. Further, on bromination, a brom-derivative is obtained which on treatment with hydroxy-caffeine. This substance behaves as an unsaturated compound and combines with a molecule of bromine to form a derivative which on treatment with alcoholic potash yields diethoxy-hydroxycaffeine. Diethoxy-hydroxycaffeine on hydrolysis with concen trated hydrochloric acid yields apocaffeine, CH,NO1, and hypocaffeine, C1H;N3O3: The isomeric Paraxanthine, or 1.7-dimethyl-2-6-dioxypurin, occurs in urine. It has been obtained from theobromine (E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2400); from 1.7-dimethyl uric acid (E. Fischer and H. Clemm, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2622); and from 8-chlorcaffeine (E. Fischer, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 423). On methylation it yields caffeine. A third isomer Theobromine, or 3.7-dimethyl-2-6-dioxypurin, is found in the cocoa-bean (from Theobroma cacao) and in the kola-nut. It is obtained by methylating xanthine, or from 3.7-dimethyl uric acid (E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1839). This acid, by the action of phosphorus oxychloride and pentachloride, is converted into 3.7-dimethyl-6-chlor-2-8-dioxypurin, which with ammonia gives the corresponding amino compound. This substance with phosphorus oxychloride yields 3.7-dimethyl-6-amino-2-oxy-8-chlorpurin, which on reduction with hydriodic acid leads to 3-7-dimethyl-6amino-2-oxypurin, from which theobromine is obtained by the action of nitrous acid. It is also obtained by W. Traube's method (Ber., 1900, 33, p. 3047) from cyanacetyl methyl urea, which gives 3-methyl-4-5-diamino-2-6-dioxypyrimidine, whose formyl derivative yields 3-methylxanthine, from which theobromine is obtained by methylation. It crystallizes in anhydrous needles which sublime at 290-295° C. It behaves as a weak base. Potassium chlorate and hydrochloric acid oxidize it to methyl alloxan and methyl urea, chromic acid mixture oxidizes it to carbon dioxide, methylamine and methylparabanic acid. When boiled with baryta it yields carbon dioxide, ammonia, methylamine, formic acid and sarcosine. Methylation of its silver salt yields caffeine. Caffeine, CH(CH3)3N4O2, is 1.3.7-trimethyl-2-6-dioxypurin. For its general properties and method of extraction see CAFFEINE. It may be synthesized by methylating chlortheophylline and reducing the resulting product (E. Fischer and L. Ach, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 3135); by the action of phosphorus oxychloride on tetramethyl uric acid, the resulting chlorcaffeine being reduced (Ber., 1897, 30, p. 3010); from dimethylalloxan (Ber., 1897, 30, p. 564); from 3-methyl uric acid (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 1980), and from 1-3-dimethyl4-5-diamino-2-6-dioxypyrimidine (W. Traube, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 3042). The three latter methods may be outlined as follows. Dimethylalloxan (I.) condenses with methylamine in the presence of sulphurous acid to form an addition product (II.), which on hydrolysis yields 1-3-7-trimethyl uramil; this substance gives with potassium cyanate, 1.3.7-trimethyl pseudo-uric acid (III.), which on dehydration yields 13-7-trimethyl uric acid (hydroxycaffeine); this substance with phosphorus pentachloride gives chlcrcaffeine, which yields caffeine (IV.) on reduction: H&CN CO H,C⚫N.CO H.C.N.CO HỌC N CO CH,(OC2H1).(OH)N1O2- → SCH,N2O+CH2NH2+2C2H,OH {CHNO+CO+CHÍNH2+2CHOH, Apocaffeine when boiled with water loses carbon dioxide and yields caffuric acid, C.H,N,O,, which on hydrolysis with basic lead acetate is converted into mesoxalic acid, methylamine and monomethyl urea. Reduction of caffuric acid yields hydrocaffuric acid, CH,NO1, which readily hydrolyses to methyl hydantoin. Consequently hydrocaffuric and caffuric acids, apocaffeine and caffeine must contain the grouping (I.). Hypocaffeine on hydrolysis loses carbon dioxide and gives caffolin, CH, NO2, which on oxidation with alkaline potassium ferricyanide yields monomethyl urea and methyl oxamic acid, whilst if oxidized by alkaline potassium permanganate it yields dimethyl oxamide. Hence caffolin contains the grouping (II.), and in consequence of its close relationship to hydrocaffuric acid is to be written as (III.). It follows that the caffeine molecule must be written as (IV.), a result confirmed by the later synthesis of caffeine itself from dimethyl alloxan (see above). Uric acid, CH.NO, or 2.6.8-trioxypurin, was discovered in 1776 in urinary calculi by Scheele. It is found in the juice of the muscles, in blood, in urine, in the excrement of serpents and birds, and in guano. The determination of the constitution and of the relation of uric acid to the other members of the group, has been a process of gradual growth. G. Brugnatelli (Giornale di fisica, chemica, &c., di Brugnatelli, 1818, 11, pp. 38, 117) obtained alloxan, and W. Prout (Phil. Trans., 1818, p. 420) obtained ammonium purpurate from uric acid, but the first elaborate investigation on the acid was by J. v. Liebig and F. Wöhler (Ann., 1838, 26, p. 241), who obtained from it allantoin, alloxantin, dialuric acid, parabanic acid, oxaluric acid, mesoxalic acid, &c. Further examination of the group was undertaken by A. Schlieper (Ann., 1845, 55, p. 256; 56, p. 1), who obtained hydurilic acid and dilituric acid, and by A. v. Baeyer (Ann., 1863, 127, pp. 1, 199; 1864, 130, p. 129; 131, p. 291), who showed that uric acid and many of its derivatives may be looked on as derivatives of barbituric acid. In 1875 L. Medicus (Ann., oc Co→ OC CH-NHCH, OC CH.NCH OCC.NCH. 1875: 175; p. 230) proposed the formula (1) for the acid, whilst N.CO HỌC N CO H CĂN CO H.C.N.CO H.C.N.C.N (I.) (II.) (III.) CONHCH (IV.) R. Fittig in 1877 (Traité de chim. org.. p. 324 [1878]) suggested the formula (II.); subsequent investigations of R. Behrend and HN.CO HN.C NH (1.) OC C-NH (II.) OC CO HN C. ΝΗ 3-Methyl uric acid (I.) (H. Hill, Ber., 1876, 9, p. 370) by the action of phosphorus oxychloride is converted into 3-methyl-2-6-dioxy-8chlorpurin (3-methyl-chlorxanthine) (II.), which, on treatment with methyl iodide in alkaline solution, gives chlortheobromine (III.), from which chlorcaffeine (IV.) can be obtained by further methy-syntheses of uric acid are due to J, Horbaczewski (Monats., 1882, lation: HN-CO CHIN-C-NH (I.) NH → OC CO CHN-CN CH N-C-N (II.) (III.) Dimethyl-diamino-dioxypyrimidine (see Theophyllin above) yields a formyl derivative which on treatment with sodium ethylate furnishes a sodium salt. This salt heated for some hours with methyl iodide yields caffeine. The constitution of caffeine was settled by E. Fischer (Ann., 1882, 215, p. 253). Earlier investigations had shown that oxidation with nitric acid gave dimethylparabanic acid or cholesterophane UJ. Stenhouse, Ann., 1843, 45, p. 366); that chlorine water oxidized | p. 796; 1885, p. 356), who obtained very poor yields. These were followed by the more satisfactory methods of R. Behrend and O. Roosen (Ann., 1888, 251, p. 235) of E. Fischer and L. Ach (Ber., 1895, 28. p. 2473) and of W. Traube (Ber., 1900, 33, p. 3035). Horbaczewski obtained the acid by heating urea with amino-acetic acid (glycine) to 200-230° C, and by fusing urea with trichlorlactamide. In Behrend's method acetoacetic ester and urea (I.) are condensed and the resulting B-uramidocrotonic ester (II.) on hydrolysis gives methyl uracil (III.), which on treatment with concentrated nitric acid yields nitro-uracil carboxylic acid (IV.). This acid when boiled with water loses carbon dioxide, forming nitro-uracil (V.), which on reduction gives amido-uracil (VI.) and oxy-uracul (VII). Oxidation of oxy-uracil with bromine water leads to dioxy uracil (VIII), which when heated with urea and concentrated sulphuric acid yields uric acid (IX.):— (VII.) (VIII) (IV.) NH.C.NH.CO NHẠC CONH (IX.) E. Fischer dehydrated pseudo-uric acid (formed from potassium cyanate and uramil) by heating it with anhydrous oxalic acid to 185° C, or with a large excess of 20% hydrochloric acid (Ber., 1897, 30, p. 560), and so obtained uric acid. This method is quite general. W. Traube condenses the sulphate of 45-diamino-2 6-dioxypyrimidine (I.) (see Xanthine, above) with chlorcarbonic ester. The resulting urethane (II.) when heated to 180-190° C loses a molecule of alcohol, giving uric acid (III.). HN COCNH, HN COC NHCO,CHs HN-CO-C NH OC-NHẠC NHOCNH CNH, (II.) OC NHANH CO (III.) It (1.) Uric acid is a white, microcrystalline powder. It is odourless and tasteless, and is insoluble in most reagents. Its solubility in water is increased by the presence of various inorganic salts, such as sodium phosphate, sodium acetate, borax, and particularly by lithium carbonate. It dissolves completely in concentrated sulphuric acid, but is reprecipitated on the addition of water. behaves as a weak dibasic acid. It is decomposed by heat into ammonia, urea, cyanuric acid and carbon dioxide. On fusion with caustic alkalis it yields alkaline cyanide, cyanate, oxalate and carbonate. It may be recognized by means of the "murexide" reaction, which consists in evaporating the acid to dryness with nitric acid, when a yellowish residue is obtained which becomes purple-red if moistened with ammonia. On the quantitative estimation of uric acid see F. W. Tunnicliffe (Chem. Centralb., 1897, 11, p. 987; E. H. Bartley, ibid., p. 644 and F. G. Hopkins, Chem. News, 1892, 66, p. 106). Methyl Uric Acids.-1-Methyl uric acid was prepared by E. Fischer and H. Clemm (Ber., 1897, 30, p. 3091) from monomethyl alloxan and ammonium sulphite, which condense together to form 1-methyluramil. This, with potassium cyanate, gives 1-methyl44-uric acid, which on dehydration gives 1-methyl uric acid. 3- or a-Methyl uric acid was prepared by Hill (Ber., 1876, 9, p. 370) by heating acid lead urate with methyl iodide. It is best obtained by heating 3-methyl chlorxanthine with hydrochloric acid to 125°C. (E. Fischer, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 1984). 7- or 7-Methyl uric acid is prepared by heating 7-methyl-268-trichlorpurin (which results from phosphorus pentachloride and theobromine) with hydrochloric acid to 130° C., or by the condensation of alloxan with methylamine in the presence of sulphur dioxide (E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 563; cf. 1-methyl uric acid). It is the most soluble in water of the methyl uric acids. 9- or 3-Methyl uric acid was obtained by E. Fischer (Ber., 1884, 17, pp. 332, 1777) by heating normal lead urate with methyl iodide to 100° C. The product so obtained was converted by the action of phosphorus oxychloride and pentachloride into 9-methyl-8-oxy-2 6-dichlorpurin, and this when with hydrochloric acid to 140° C. gave the required methyl uric acid. It is distinguished from 3-methyl uric acid by its much smaller solubility in water and by the greater stability of its ammonium salt. A fifth isomer, 6-methyl uric acid, has been described by W. v. Loeben (Ann., 1897, 298, p. 181) who obtained it by condensing acetoacetic ester and monomethyl urea according to Behrend's method. The constitution of this acid is not definitely known. 1.3 or -Dimethyl uric acid is obtained by converting dimethyl alloxan into dimethyluramil, which with potassium cyanate gives dimethyl-y-uric acid; this acid is then dehydrated (E. Fischer, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2475; 1897, 30, p. 560). 1.7-Dimethyl uric acid is similarly obtained by starting with monomethyl alloxan and methylamine (E. Fischer and H. Clemm, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 3095). 19-Dimethyl uric acid is obtained from 9-methyl-8-oxy-2-6dichlorpurin (see 9-Methyl uric acid above). By successive treatment with ammonia and nitrous acid this is converted into 9-methyl68-dioxy-2-chlorpurin, which on condensation with formaldehyde in alkaline solution yields 9-methyl-7-oxymethyl-6 8-dioxy-2-chlorpurin. Methylation of this latter compound introduces a methyl group into position 1, and the dimethyl compound so formed on dilution with water and the simultaneous action of superheated steam yields 1-9-dimethyl-6 8-dioxy-2-chlorpurin, from which 19-dimethyl uric acid is obtained by hydrolysis with concentrated hydrochloric acid at 100° C. (E. Fischer, and F. Ach Ber., 1899, 32, p. 257). 3.7 or 8-Dimethyl uric acid is prepared by methylating 7-methyl uric acid (E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 564) or by heating bromtheobromine with alkalis (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2482). 3-9-Dimethyl uric acid is prepared by heating neutral lead urate with methyl jodide (H. B. Hill and C. F. Mabery, Amer. Chem. Journ., 1880-1881,2, | p. 308) and by methylating 3-methyl uric acid (E. Fischer, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 269). 7-9 or 8-Dimethyl uric acid is prepared by heating 7-9-dimethyl-8-oxy-2-6-dichlorpurin with hydrochloric acid to 130° C. 1.3.7-Trimethyl uric acid or hydroxycaffeine, may be prepared from caffeine, or by direct methylation of uric acid at o C. (E. Fischer). 1-3-9-Trimethyl uric acid is prepared by methylating 1.3-dimethyl uric acid (E. Fischer and L. Ach, Ber.. 1895, 28, p. 2478). 1-7-9-Trimethyl uric acid is prepared by methylating 9-methyl-6-8-dioxy-2-chlorpurin (see 1-9-dimethyl uric acid, above) and heating the resulting trimethyl dioxychlorpurin with concen trated hydrochloric acid to 110-115° C. (E. Fischer and F. Ach, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 256). Tetramethyl uric acid was first prepared (Ber., 1884, 17, p. 1784) by methylating 3.7-9-trimethyl uric acid. It may also be obtained by methylating uric acid and the other methyl uric acids. It has a neutral reaction. in ox pancreas and also in tea. Aminopurins.-Adenine is 6-aminopurin. It has been found It is prepared by heating 2-6-8trichlorpurin with ammonia, and reducing the resulting 6-amino2-8-dichlorpurin with hydriodic acid; or by heating 8-oxy-2-6dichlorpurin (from uric acid and phosphorus oxychloride) with alcoholic ammonia to obtain 8-oxy-2-chlor-6-aminopurin, which with phosphorus oxychloride at 140° C., gives 6-amino-2-8-dichloradenine (E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2238; 1898, 31, p. 104). It purin. Reduction of this compound with hydriodic acid yields crystallizes from water in leaflets which contain three molecules of water of crystallization. The anhydrous base melts at 360-365° C. Nitrous acid converts it into hypoxanthine; whilst hydrochloric acid at 180-200° C. decomposes it completely into aminonia, carbon dioxide, formic acid and glycocoll (A. Kossel, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 225; 1893, 26, p. 1914). Isoadenine or 2-aminopurin, is obtained from 2·4-dichlor-5-nitropyrimidine (see Purin, above) by heating it with ammonia, when compound by means of stannous chloride and hydrochloric acid Reduction of this 2-4-diamino-5-nitropyrimidine is formed. gives 2.4.5-triaminopyrimidine which readily condenses with formic acid to isoadenine (O. Isay, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 250). It has also been obtained by J. Tafel and B. Ach (Ber., 1901, 34, p. 1177) by the electrolytic reduction of guanine to desoxyguanine, the acetate of which is warmed with bromine and subsequently oxidized. 9-Methyl adenine was first obtained by I. Krüger (Zeit. f. physiol. Chem., 1894, 18, p. 434) by methylating adenine, and has been synthesized by E. Fischer (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 104) from 9-methyl-2-6dichlor-8-oxypurin. For 7-methyl adenine see E. Fischer, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 104. Guanine, or 2-amino-6-oxypurin, is found in the pancreas of various animals and also very abundantly in guano, from which it was first extracted by B. Unger (Ann., 1844, 51, p. 395; 1846, 58, p. 18). It has been obtained synthetically from 6-oxy-2-8-dichlorpurin (E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2252) by heating it with alcoholic ammonia to 150° C. and reducing the resulting 6-oxy-2-amino-8chlorpurin with hydriodic acid. W. Traube (Ber., 1900, 33, p. 1371) condensed cyanacetic ester with guanidine and the resulting com pound (I.) with caustic soda gives 2-4-diamino-6-oxypyrimidine (II.). This substance yields an isonitroso-derivative which on reduc tion with ammonium sulphide gives 2.4.5-triamino-6-oxypyrimidine (III.), from which guanine (IV.) is obtained by heating with concentrated formic acid:HN.CO. N:C.OH N:C.OH HN.CO H2N CN (I.) CH NC-N (IV.) It may also be obtained as follows [E. Merck, German Patents 158591 (1903); 162336 (1904)]. Dicyandiamide (I.) condenses with cyanacetic ester to form 2-cyanamino-4-amino-6-oxypyrimidine (II.). This yields an isonitroso-derivative which on reduction gives 2-cyanamino-4-5-diamino-6-oxypyrimidine (III.). This compound when boiled with a 90% solution of formic acid gives guanine formate:NH N.CẢNH NÓC NH CN-NH-CCN-NH-C CH CN•NH·C Ċ·NH2 ΝΗ, N:C.OH Ń:C.OH (1.) (II.) (III.) It is an amorphous powder, insoluble in water, alcohol and ether, and has both acid and basic properties. Nitrous acid converts it into xanthine. When oxidized by hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate it yields guanidine, parabanic acid and carbon dioxide. 6-Amino-2-oxypurin, an isomer of guanine, is prepared by heating dichloradenine or 6-amino-2-6-8-trichlorpurin, obtained from 2.6.8 trichlorpurin and ammonia (Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2239) with sodium ethylate to 130° C. and reducing the resulting 6-amino-2ethoxy-8-chlorpurin with hydriodic acid (E. Fischer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2245). 6-Amino-8-oxypurin, another isomer of guanine, prepared by heating 8-oxy-2-6-dichlorpurin with alcoholic ammonia and reducing the resulting amino-oxy-chlor compound with hydri odic acid (E. Fischer, loc. cit.) 7-Methyl guanine is obtained from 7-methyl-6-oxy-2-chlorpurin in the decade. The district extends from the Ganges north(see above) by the action of aqueous ammonia at 150° C. It also wards to the frontier of Nepal. It is a level, depressed tract of results instead of the expected 7-methyl-2-oxy-6-aminopurin, when 7-methyl-6-amino-2-chlorpurin is treated with dilute alkalis country, consisting for the most part of a rich, loamy soil of (E. Fischer, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 542), owing to ring splitting in the alluvial formation. It is traversed by several rivers flowing 1-6-position, followed by eliminating of halogen acid. from the Himalayas, which afford great advantages of irrigation and water-carriage; in the west the soil is thickly covered with sand deposited by changes in the course of the Kusi. Among other rivers are the Mahananda and the Panar. Under Mahommedan rule Purnea was an outlying province, yielding little revenue and often in a state of anarchy. Its local governor raised a rebellion against Suraj-ud-daula in 1757, after the capture of Calcutta. The principal crops are rice, pulses and oilseeds. The cultivation of indigo is declining, but that of jute is extending. The district is traversed by branches of the Eastern Bengal railway, which join the Bengal and NorthWestern railway at Katihar. Thiopurins.-W. Traube (Ann., 1904, 331, pp. 66 seq.) has obtained many compounds of the purin group by using thiourea, which is condensed with cyanacetic ester, &c., to form thiopyrimidines. These in turn yield thiopurins, which on oxidation with dilute nitric acid are converted into purin compounds, thus:- -> HN.CO HN.CO H2N CO2R HN.CO SC+CH2 SC CH, SC CNH2 H2N CN HN CẢNH HN.CẢNH, HN.CN CH. Various thiopurins have been obtained by E. Fischer (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 431), principally by acting with potassium sulphydrate on chlorinated purin compounds. 2-6-8-Trithiopurin is obtained from the corresponding trichlorpurin and potassium sulphydrate. It forms a light yellow mass which carbonizes on heating. It is almost insoluble in water and alcohol; but readily dissolves in dilute solutions of the caustic alkalis and of ammonia. Much work has been done by J. Tafel (Ber., 1900, seq.) on the electrolytic reduction of the members of the purin group. The substance to be reduced is dissolved in a 50-75% solution of sulphuric acid and placed in a porous cell containing a lead cathode, the whole being then acid in the anode cell placed in a 20-60% solution of sulphuric is found that xanthine and its homologues take up four atoms of hydrogen per molecule and give rise to the so-called desoxy-compounds, which are stronger bases than the original substances. Uric acid takes up six hydrogen atoms per molecule and gives purone, CH,NO2, and it is apparently the oxygen atom attached to the carbon atom number 6 which is replaced by hydrogen, since when purone is heated with baryta, two molecules of carbon dioxide are liberated for one of purone. Consequently purone must contain two urea residues, which necessitates the presence of the >CO groups in positions 2 and 8. (F. G. P.*) PURITANISM (Lat. puritas, purity), the name given originally perhaps in a hostile sense on the analogy of Catharism (see CATHARS)-to the movement for greater strictness of life and simplicity in worship which grew up in the Church of England in the 16th century among those who thought that there had not been a sufficient divergence from the Roman Church, and which ultimately led to the rise of a number of separatist denominations. Thomas Fuller (Church History) traces the earliest use of the term "Puritan" to 1564. The terms " Precisian,' ""Puritan," 'Presbyterian," were all used by Archbishop Parker in his letters about this time as nicknames for the same party, and ten years later the name was in common use. See ENGLAND, CHURCH OF: CONGREGATIONALISM; PRESBYTERIANISM, &c.; also D. Neal, History of the Puritans (ed. Toulmin, 5 vols., 1822); E. Dowden, Puritan and Anglican (1901); J. Heron, A Short History of Puritanism (1908). PURPLE, a colour-name, now given to a shade varying between crimson and violet. Formerly it was used, as the origin of the name shows, of the deep crimson colour called in Latin purpura, purpureus and in Greek πорþúρa, πoppupeos (from Toppipe, to grow dark, especially used of the sea). This was properly the name of the shellfish (Purpura, Murex) which yielded the famous Tyrian dye, the particular mark of the dress of emperors, kings, chief magistrates and other dignitaries, whence "the purple" still signifies the rank of emperors or kings. particularly by Constantine VII., Byzantine emperor, but was also The title of porphyrogenitus (Gr. zoppupoyevnτos) was borne used generally of those born of the Byzantine imperial family. This title, generally translated "born in the purple," either refers to the purple robes in which the imperial children were wrapped at birth, or to a chamber or part of the imperial palace, called the Porphyra (rópoupa), where the births took place. Whether this Porphyra signified a chamber with purple hangings or lined with porphyry is not known (see Selden, Titles of Honour, ed. 1672, p. 60 seq.). of PURPURA, in pathology, a general term for the symptom purple-coloured spots upon the surface of the body, due to extravasations of blood in the skin, accompanied occasionally with haemorrhages from mucous membranes. The varieties following the administration of certain drugs, notably copaiba, of purpura may be conveniently divided as follows: (a) toxic, quinine, ergot, belladonna and the iodides; also following snakebite; (b) cachectic, seen in persons suffering from such diseases as tuberculosis, heart disease, cancer, Bright's disease, jaundice, as well as from certain of the infectious fevers, extravasations of the kind above mentioned being not infrequently present; (c) neurotic; (d) arthritic, which includes the form known as Purpura simplex," in which there may or may not be articular pain, and the complaint is usually ushered in by lassitude and feverishness, followed by the appearance on the surface of the body of the characteristic spots in the form of small red points scattered over the skin of the limbs and trunk. The spots are not raised above the surface, and they do not disappear on pressure. Their colour soon becomes deep purple or nearly black; but after a few days they undergo the changes which are observed in the case of an ordinary bruise, passing to a green and yellow hue and finally disappearing. When of minute size they are termed "petechiae" or "stigmata," when somewhat larger "vibices," and when in patches of considerable size ecchymoses." They may come out in fresh crops over a lengthened period. PURLIEU, a word used of the outlying parts of a place or district, sometimes in a derogatory sense. It was a term of the old English forest law (q.v.), and meant, as defined by Manwood (Treatise of the Forest Laws), "a certain territory of ground adjoining unto the forest,...which...was once forest-land and afterwards disafforested by the perambulations made for the severing of the new forests from the old." The owner of freelands in the purlieu to the yearly value of forty shillings was known as a purlieu-man or purley-man." There seems" no doubt that "purlieu" or "purley" represents the AngloFrench purale, puralee (O. Fr. pouraler, puraler, to go through, Lat. perambulare), a legal term meaning properly a perambulation to determine the boundaries of a manor, parish, &c. PURLIN, a term in architecture for the longitudinal timbers of a roof, which are carried by the principal rafters and the end walls and support the common rafters. PURNEA or PURNIAH, a town and district of British India, in the Bhagalpur division of Bengal. The town is on the left bank of the little river Saura, with a railway station. Pop. (1901), 14,007. It has a bad reputation for fever. The DISTRICT OF PURNEA has an area of 4994 sq. m. and a population (1901) of 1,874,794, showing a decrease of 3.6% Purpura rheumatica (Schönlein's disease) is a remarkable variety characterized by sore throat, fever and articular pains accompanied by purpuric spots and associated with urticaria and occasionally with definite nodular infiltrations. This is by many writers considered to be a separate disease, but it is usually regarded as of rheumatic origin. Purpura haemorrhagica (acute haemorrhagic purpura) is a more serious form, in which, in addition to the phenomena already mentioned as affecting the skin, there is a tendency to the occurrence of haemorrhage from mucous surfaces, especially from the nose, but also from the mouth, lungs, stomach, bowels, kidneys, &c., sometimes in large and dangerous amount. Great physical prostration is apt to attend this form of the disease, and a fatal result sometimes follows the successive haemorrhages, or is suddenly precipitated by the occurrence of an extravasation of blood into the brain. |
