Apulia, which Hannibal had chosen for his battle-ground, the Roman legions delivered their attack. Hannibal deliberately allowed his centre to be driven in by their superior numbers, while Hasdrubal's cavalry wheeled round so as to take the enemy in flank and rear. The Romans, surrounded on all sides and so cramped that their superior numbers aggravated their plight, were practically annihilated, and the loss of citizens was perhaps greater than in any other defeat that befel the Republic. The moral effect of the battle was no less momentous. The south Italian nations at last found courage to secede from Rome, the leaders of the movement being the people of Capua, the second greatest town of Italy. Reinforcements were sent from Carthage, and several neutral powers prepared to throw their weight into the scale on Hannibal's behalf. At first sight it seems strange that the battle of Cannae did not decide the war. But the resources of Rome, though terribly reduced in respect both of men and of money, were not yet exhausted. In north and central Italy the insurrection spread but little, and could be sufficiently guarded against with small detachments. In the south the Greek towns of the coast remained loyal, and the numerous Latin colonics continued to render important service by interrupting free communication between the rebels and detaining part of their forces. In Rome itself the quarrels between the nobles and commons, which had previously unsettled her policy, gave way to a unanimity unparalleled in the annals of the Republic. The guidance of operations was henceforth left to the senate, which by maintaining a firm and persistent policy until the conflict was brought to a successful end earned its greatest title to fame..

The subsequent campaigns of the Italian War assume a new character. Though the Romans contrived at times to raise 200,000 men, they could only spare a moderate force for field operations. Their generals, among whom the veterans Fabius and M. Claudius Marcellus frequently held the most important commands, rarely ventured to engage Hannibal in the open, and contented themselves with observing him or skirmishing against his detachments. Hannibal, whose recent accessions of strength were largely discounted by the necessity of assigning troops to protect his new allies or secure their wavering loyalty, was still too weak to undertake a vigorous offensive. In the ensuing years the war resolved itself into a multiplicity of minor engagements which need not be followed out in detail. In 216 and 215 the chief seat of war was Campania, where Hannibal vainly attempted to establish himself on the coast and experienced a severe repulse at Nola. In 214 the main Carthaginian force was transferred to Apulia in hopes of capturing Tarentum. Though Croton and Locri on the Calabrian coast had fallen into his hands, Hannibal still lacked a suitable harbour by which he might have secured his oversea communications. For two years he watched in vain for an opportunity of surprising the town, while the Romans narrowed down the sphere of revolt in Campania and defeated other Carthaginian commanders. In 212 the greater part of Tarentum and other cities of the southern seaboard at last came into Hannibal's power. But in the same year the Romans found themselves strong enough to place Capua under blockade. They severely defeated a Carthaginian relief force, and could not be permanently dislodged even by Hannibal himself. In 211 Hannibal made a last effort to relieve his allies by a feint upon Rome itself, but the besiegers refused to be drawn away from their entrenchments, and eventually Capua was starved into surrender. Its fall was a sign that no power could in the long run uphold a rival Italian coalition against Rome. After a year of desultory fighting the Romans in 200 gained a further important success by recovering Tarentum. Though Hannibal from time to time still won isolated engagements, yet slowly but surely he was being driven back into the extreme south of the peninsula.

In 207 the arrival of a fresh invading force produced a new crisis. Hasdrubal, who in 200-208 had marched overland from Spain, appeared in north Italy with a force scarcely inferior to the army which his brother had brought in 218. After levying contingents of Gauls and Ligurians he marched down the east

coast with the object of joining hands with his brother in central Italy for a direct attack upon Rome. By this time the drain of men and money was telling so severely upon her confederacy that some of her most loyal allies protested their inability to render further help. Yet by a supreme effort the Romans raised their war establishment to the highest total yet attained and sent a strong field army against either Carthaginian leader. The danger to Rome was chiefly averted by the prompt insight and enterprise of the consul C. Nero, who commanded the main army in the south. Having discovered that Hannibal would not advance beyond Apulia until his brother had established communications with him, Nero slipped away with part of his troops and arrived in time to reinforce his colleague Livius, whose force had recently got into touch with Hasdrubal near Sena Gallica (Sinigaglia). The combined Roman army frustrated an attempt of Hasdrubal to elude it and forced him to fight on the banks of the Metaurus. The battle was evenly contested until Nero by a dexterous flanking movement cut the enemy's retreat. Hasdrubal himself fell and the bulk of his army was destroyed.

The campaign of 207 decided the war in Italy. Though Hannibal still maintained himself for some years in Calabria, this was chiefly due to the exhaustion of Rome after the prodigious strain of past years and the consequent reduction of her armaments. In 203 Italy was finally cleared of Carthaginian troops. Hannibal, in accordance with orders from home, sailed back to Africa, and another expedition under his brother Mago, which had sailed to Liguria in 205 and endeavoured to rouse the slumbering discontent in Cisalpine Gaul and Etruria, was driven back on the coast and withdrawn about the same time. b. The Subsidiary Campaigns.-Concurrently with the great struggle in Italy the Second Punic War was fought out on several other fields. It will suffice merely to allude to the First Macedonian War (214-205) which King Philip V. commenced when the Roman power seemed to be breaking up after Cannae. The diversions which Roman, diplomacy provided for Philip in Greece and the maintenance of a patrol squadron in the Adriatic prevented any effective co-operation on his part with Hannibal.

In view of the complete stagnation of agriculture in Italy the Romans had to look to Sardinia and Sicily for their food supply. Sardinia was attacked by a Carthaginian Sardinia armament in 215, but a small Roman force sufficed and Sicily. to repel the invasion. In Sicily a more serious conflict broke out. Some isolated attacks by Punic squadrons were easily frustrated by the strong Roman fleet. But in 215 internal complications arose. The death of Hiero II., Rome's steadfast friend, left the kingdom of Syracuse to his inexperienced grandson Hieronymus. Flattered by the promises of Carthaginian emissaries the young prince abruptly broke with the Romans, but before hostilities commenced he was assassinated. The Syracusan people now repudiated the monarchy and resumed their republican constitution, but they were misled by false threats of terrible punishment at the hands of Rome to play into the hands of the Carthaginians. The attacks of a Roman army and fleet under Marcellus which speedily appeared before the town were completely baffled by the mechanical contrivances of the Syracusan mathematician Archimedes (213). Meantime the revolt against Rome spread in the interior, and a Carthaginian fleet established itself in the towns of the south coast. In 212 Marcellus at last broke through the defence of Syracuse and in spite of the arrival of a Carthaginian relief force mastered the town by slow degrees. A guerilla warfare succeeded in which the Carthaginians maintained the upper hand until in 210 they lost their base at Agrigentum. Thereupon they were rapidly dislodged from their remaining positions, and by the end of the year Sicily was wholly under the power of Rome.

The conflict in Spain was second in importance to the Italian War alone. From this country the Carthaginians drew large supplies of troops and money which might serve to Spain. reinforce Hannibal; hence it was in the interest of the Romans to challenge their enemy within his Spanish domain.

Though the force which Rome at first spared for this war was small in numbers and rested entirely upon its own resources, the generals Publius and Gnaeus Scipio by skilful strategy and diplomacy not only won over the peoples north of the Ebro and defeated the Carthaginian leader Hasdrubal Barca in his attempts to restore communication with Italy, but carried their arms along the east coast into the heart of the enemy's domain. But eventually their successes were nullified by a rash advance. Deserted by their native contingents and cut off by Carthaginian cavalry, among which the Numidian prince Massinissa rendered conspicuous service, the Roman generals were slain and their troops were destroyed in detail (212 or 211).

Disturbances in Africa prevented the Punic commanders from reaping the full fruit of their success. Before long the fall of Capua enabled Rome to transfer troops from Italy to Spain, and in 209 the best Roman general of the day, the young son and namesake of the recently slain P. Scipio, was placed in command. The new leader signalized his arrival by a bold and successful coup-de-main upon the great arsenal of Carthago Nova. Though he failed to prevent Hasdrubal Barca from marching away to Italy, Scipio profited by his departure to push back the remaining hostile forces the more rapidly. A last effort by the Carthaginians to retrieve their losses with a fresh army was frustrated by a great victory at Ilipa (near Corduba), and by the end of 206 they were completely driven out of the peninsula.

In 205 Scipio, who had returned to Rome to hold the consulship, proposed to follow up his victories by an attack upon the home territory of Carthage. Though the presence The War in Africa. of Hannibal in Italy at first deterred the senate from sanctioning this policy, the general popularity of the scheme overbore all resistance. Scipio was granted a force which he organized and supplemented in Sicily, and in 204 sailed across to Africa. He was here met by a combined levy of Carthage and King Syphax of Numidia, and for a time penned to the shore near Utica. But in the winter he extricated himself by a surprise attack upon the enemy's camp, which resulted in the total loss of the allied force by sword or flame. In the campaign of 203 a new Carthaginian force was destroyed by Scipio on the Great Plains not far from Utica, their ally Syphax was captured, and the renegade Massinissa (q.v.) reinstated in the kingdom from which Syphax had recently expelled him. These disasters induced the Carthaginians to sue for peace, but before the very moderate terms which Scipio offered could be definitely accepted a sudden reversal of opinion caused them to recall Hannibal's army for a final trial of war, and to break off negotiations. In 202 Hannibal assumed command of a composite force of citizen and mercenary levies stiffened with a corps of his veteran Italian troops. After an abortive conference with Scipio he prepared for a decisive battle at Zama (an inland site not yet identified with certainty). Scipio's force was smaller in numbers, but well trained throughout and greatly superior in cavalry. His infantry, after evading an attack by the Carthaginian elephants, cut through the first two lines of the enemy, but was unable to break the reserve corps of veterans. The battle was ultimately decided by the cavalry of the Romans and their new ally Massinissa, which by a manœuvre recalling the tactics of Cannae took Hannibal's line in the rear and completely destroyed it. The Carthaginians having thus lost their last army again applied for peace and accepted the terms which Scipio offered. They were compelled to cede Spain and the Mediterranean islands still in their hands, to surrender their warships, to pay an indemnity of 10,000 talents (about £2,400,000) within fifty years and to forfeit their independence in affairs of war and foreign policy.

The Second Punic War, by far the greatest struggle in which either power engaged, had thus ended in the complete triumph of Rome. This triumph is not to be explained in the main by any faultiness in the Carthaginians' method of attack. The history of the First Punic War, and that of the Second outside of Italy, prove that the Romans were irresistible on neutral or Carthaginian ground. Carthage could only hope to win by

invading Italy and using the enemy's home resources against him. The failure of Hannibal's brilliant endeavour to realize these conditions was not due to any strategical mistakes on his part. It was caused by the indomitable strength of will of the Romans, whose character during this period appears at its best, and to the compactness of their Italian confederacy, which no shock of defeat or strain of war could entirely disintegrate. It is this spectacle of individual genius overborne by corporate and persevering effort which lends to the Second Punic War its peculiar interest.

The Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.)-The political power of Carthage henceforth remained quite insignificant, but its commerce and material resources revived in the 2nd century with such rapidity as to excite the jealousy of the growing mercantile population of Rome and the alarm of its more timid statesmen. Under the influence of these feelings the conviction sedulously fostered by Cato the Elder, the Censor-that "Carthage must be destroyed" overbore the scruples of more clear-sighted statesmen. A casus belli was readily found in a formal breach of the treaty, committed by the Carthaginians in 154, when they resisted Massinissa's aggressions by force of arms. A Roman army was despatched to Africa, and although the Carthaginians consented to make reparation by giving hostages and surrendering their arms, they were goaded into revolt by the further stipulation that they must emigrate to some inland site where they would be debarred from commerce. By a desperate effort they created a new war equipment and prepared their city for a siege (149). The Roman attack for two years completely miscarried, until in 147 the command was given to a young officer who had distinguished himself in the early operations of the war-Scipio Aemilianus, the adoptive grandson of the former conqueror of Carthage. Scipio made the blockade stringent by walling off the isthmus on which the town lay and by cutting off its sources of supplies from oversea. His main attack was delivered on the harbour side, where he effected an entrance in the face of a determined and ingenious resistance. The struggle did not cease until he had carried house by house the streets that led up to the citadel. Of a population probably exceeding half a million only 50,000 remained at the final surrender. The survivors were sold into slavery; the city was razed to the ground and its site condemned by solemn imprecations to lie desolate for ever. The territory of Carthage, which had recently been much narrowed by Massinissa's encroachments, was converted into a Roman province under the name of "Africa."

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-1. Ancient Authorities. For the First Punic War Polybius, bk. 1, provides a trustworthy and impartial account, but owing to his conciseness leaves many problems of chronology and strategy unexplained. For the Second War bks. 2 and 3 of Polybius present a complete and detailed record down to Cannae: bks. 7-15 contain fragmentary notices of which the most continuous deal with the campaigns of Scipio. Livy (bks. 23-30) gives a continuous and detailed narrative, partly based upon Polybius and other good authorities, partly upon untrustworthy Roman annalists. The Third War is described in Appian's Res Libycae, chs. 67. sqq.. and the fragments of Polybius, bks. 36-39.

The subsidiary authorities are: Diodorus, bks. 20-27, 32; Appian, Res Libycae, Hispanicae, Hannibalicae; Zonaras's epitome of Dio Cassius, frs. 43, 54, 57: Plutarch's Lives of Fabius and Marcellus: Cornelius Nepos's Lives of Hamilcar and Hannibal, and short references in Justin, Eutropius, Aurelius Victor and Orosius. The sources and methods of composition of these authors have been discussed in numerous articles and dissertations, mostly German, of which the most important are mentioned in Niese's work (quoted below). These essays have brought out few certain results, but they tend to show that the narratives, so far as they are not based on Polybius or earlier authorities, are of little value.

2. Modern Works. a. For general accounts, see the respective passages in the general histories of Rome, especially Mommsen (Eng. trans., 1894,.vol. ii.), and Ihne (Eng. trans., vol. ii.); also and R. B. Smith, Rome and Carthage (London, 1881). C. Neumann, Das Zeitalter der punischen, Kriege (Breslau, 1883),

b, For the First War.-O. Meltzer, Geschichte der Karthager, ii. 252-356 (Berlin, 1879-1886); J. Beloch, Griechische Geschichte, vol. iii. pt. i. pp. 664-684 (Strassburg, 1893-1904); B. Niese, Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten, i. 174199 (Gotha, 1893-1903); W. W. Tarn, "The Fleets of the First Punic War." in Journal of Hellenic Studies (1907), pp. 48-60, For

c. For the period 241-238.-O. Gilbert, Rom und Karthago 513-536 A.U.C. (Leipzig, 1876); Meltzer, op. cit. ii. 357-456.

d. For the Second War.-T. Arnold, The Second Punic War (ed. W. T. Arnold; London, 1886); T. A. Dodge, Great Captains, Hannibal (Boston and New York, 1889); G. Bossi, in Studi di storia e dirillo, vols. x.-xiii.; P. Cantalupi, Le Legioni romane nella guerra d'Annibale (Studi di storia antica, 1891, i. 3-48); Th. Zielinski, Die letzten Jahre des zweiten punischen Krieges (Leipzig, 1880).

e. Special articles.-On Sicily: Niese, op. cit. ii. 505-561. On Spain: J. Frantz, Die Kriege der Scipionen in Spanien (Munich, 1883).

For further bibliographical references consult B. Niese, Grundriss der römischen Geschichte, pp. 81-88, 94-108, 138-142 (Munich, 1906). See also the articles on chief personages (especially HANNIBAL and SCIPIO), and under ROME: Ancient History; CARTHAGE; SICILY. (M. O. B. C.)

PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. Town), the infliction of some kind of pain or loss upon a person for a misdeed, i.e. the transgression of a law or command. Punishment may take forms varying from capital punishment, flogging and mutilation of the body to imprisonment, fines, and even deferred sentences which come into operation only if an offence is repeated within a specified time. The progress of civilization has resulted in a vast change alike in the theory and in the method of punishment. In primitive society punishment was left to the individuals wronged or their families, and was vindictive or retributive: in quantity and quality it would bear no special relation to the character or gravity of the offence. Gradually there would arise the idea of proportionate punishment, of which the characteristic type is the lex talionis, an eye for an eye." The second stage was punishment by individuals under the control of the state, or community; in the third stage, with the growth of law, the state took over the primitive function and provided itself with the machinery of justice for the maintenance of public order. Henceforward crimes are against the state, and the exaction of punishment by the wronged individual is illegal (cf. LYNCH LAW). Even at this stage the vindictive or retributive character of punishment remains, but gradually, and specially after the humanist movement under thinkers like Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, new theories begin to emerge. Two chief trains of thought have combined in the condemnation of primitive theory and practice. On the one hand the retributive principle itself has been very largely superseded by the protective and the reformative; on the other punishments involving bodily pain have become objectionable to the general sense of society. Consequently corporal and even capital punishment occupy a far less prominent position, and tend everywhere to disappear. It began to be recognized also that stereotyped punishments, such as belong to penal codes, fail to take due account of the particular condition of an offence and the character and circumstances of the offender. A fixed fine, for example, operates very unequally on rich and poor.

Modern theories date from the 18th century, when the humanitarian movement began to teach the dignity of the individual and to emphasize his rationality and responsibility. The result was the reduction of punishment both in quantity and in severity, the improvement of the prison system, and the first attempts to study the psychology of crime and to distinguish between classes of criminals with a view to their improvement (see CRIME; PRISON; CHILDREN'S COURTS; JUVENILE OFFENDERS). These latter problems are the province of criminal anthropology and criminal sociology, sciences so called because they view crime as the outcome of anthropological and social conditions. The man who breaks the law is himself a product of social evolution and cannot be regarded as solely responsible for his disposition to transgress. Habitual crime is thus to be treated as a disease. Punishment can, therefore, be justified only in so far as it (1) protects society by removing temporarily or Talio, in juridical Latin, the abstract noun from talis, such, alike. hence retaliation.", See Exod. xxi. 24; Lev. xxiv. 26; Deut. xix. 21

retributive theory of punishment with its criterion of justice as an end in itself gives place to a theory which regards punishment solely as a means to an end, utilitarian or moral, according as the common advantage or the good of the criminal is sought.

AUTHORITIES.-Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morality and Legislation; Henry Maine, Ancient Law; C. B. de Beccaria, Crimes and Punishments; also works quoted under CRIMINOLOGY; CAPITAL PUNISHMENT; Prison; and articles on e.g. ROMILLY, SIR SAMUEL and HOWARD, JOHN.

PUNJAB, a province of British India, so named from the "five rivers" by which it is watered: the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, all tributaries of the Indus. Geographically the Punjab is the triangular tract of country of which the Indus and the Sutlej to their confluence form the two sides, the base being the lower Himalaya hills between those two rivers; but the British province.now includes a large tract outside those boundaries. Along the northern border Himalayan ranges divide it from Kashmir and Tibet. On the west it is separated from the North-West Frontier province by the Indus, until that river reaches the border of Dera Ghazi Khan district, which is divided from Baluchistan by the Suliman range. To the south lie Sind and Rajputana, while on the east the rivers Jumna and Tons separate it from the United Provinces.

Political

The Punjab includes two classes of territory, that belonging to the British Crown, and that in possession of 34 feudatory chiefs, almost all of whom pay tribute. The total area of the province is 133,741 sq. m., of which 97,209 sq. m. Divisions. are British territory, and the remainder belongs to native states. The British territory is divided into 29 districts, grouped under the five divisions of Delhi, Lahore, Jullundur, Rawalpindi and Multan; while the native states vary in size from Bahawalpur, with an area of 15,000 sq. m., to the tiny state of Darkoti, with an area of 8 sq. m. and a total population of 518 souls. They may be grouped under three main heads: the Phulkian states of Patiala, Jind and Nabha and the Sikh state of Kapurthala, occupying the centre of the eastern plains; the Mahommedan state of Bahawalpur between the Sutlej and the Rajputana desert; and the hill states, among the Punjab Himalayas held by ancient Rajput families, including Chamba, Mandi, Suket, Sirmur and the Simla states.

Physical Features.-The mountain regions of the Punjab fall under four separate groups. To the north-east of the province lies the Himalayan system, with the fringing range of the Siwaliks at its foot. In the south-eastern corner the Aravalli system sends out insignificant outliers, which run across Gurgaon and Delhi districts and strike the Jumna at Delhi. The lower portion of the western frontier is constituted by the great Suliman chain; while the north-western districts of the province are traversed by the hill system known as the Salt range. The mountain system of the Himalayas, so far as it concerns the Punjab, consists primarily of three great ranges running in a generally north-westerly direction from the head-waters of the Sutlej to the Indus: the western Himalayas or Zanskar or Bara Lacha range, the mid-Himalayas or Pir Panjal range, and the outer or sub-Himalayas. From these three great ranges spring numerous minor ranges, as ribs from a backbone, the whole forming a confused system of mountain chains and valleys, the breadth of which is some 90 m. at its eastern extremity from Lahul to the Siwaliks of Hoshiarpur, and some 150 m. measured at its western extremity across Kashmir.

The Five

Rivers.

The "five rivers" of the Punjab are each of large volume; but, on account of the great width of sandy channel in their passage through the plains, their changing courses, and shifting shoals, they are of no value for steam navigation, though they all support a considerable boat-traffic. Of recent years most of them have been utilized for purposes of irrigation, and have turned the sandy desert of This idea combined with the retributive is found as early as Deut. xix. 20, And those which remain shall hear and fear, and shall henceforth commit no more any such evil."

While the general name Punjab is applied to the whole country of the "five rivers," there are distinct names for each of the doabs (do, two; ab, water) or tracts between two adjoining rivers. The country between the Sutlej and the Beas is called the Jullundur Doab; it includes the districts of Jullundur and Hoshiarpur. The long strip between the Beas and the Ravi, containing the greater part of Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Lahore, Montgomery, and Multan districts, is called the Bari Doab. Rechna Doab is the tract between the Ravi and the Chenab, embracing Sialkot and Gujranwala districts, with the trans-Ravi portions of the districts of the Bari Doab. Chaj

or Jech is the doab between the Chenab and the Jhelum (Gujrat and Shahpur districts and part of Jhang), and Sind Sagar is the name of the large doab between the Jhelum and the Indus, including Rawalpindi, Jhelum and Muzaffargarh districts, with parts of Shahpur, Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan. The higher and dryer parts of the doabs are called bar. They are waste, but not barren, scantily covered with low shrubs, and capable, when watered, of being well cultivated. The bar is the great camel-grazing land. Large areas of Muzaffargarh and Multan districts are that, barren tracts of shifting sand. The middle part of the Bari Doab, in Amritsar district bears the distinctive name of Manjha (middle) as the centi, and headquarters of the Sikh nation, containing their two sacred tanks of Amritsar and Taran Taran. The Malwa Sikhs, again, are those of the cis-Sutlej country.

South of the Himalayas stretch the great plains, which constitute by far the larger proportion of the province. With the exception of the Himalayan and Salt range The Punjab tracts the Punjab presents, from the Jumna on the Plains. east to the Sulimans in the west, one vast level, unbroken save by the wide eroded channels within which the great rivers ever shift their beds, by the insignificant spurs of the Aravalli range in the south-eastern corner, and the low hills of Chiniot and Kirana in Jhang. The whole of these vast plains is of alluvial formation. Stones are unknown save at the immediate foot of the hills; micaceous river sand is to be found everywhere at varying depths; and the only mineral is nodular accretions of limestone, called kankar, which is used for the construction of roads. The soil is a singularly uniform loam, the quality being determined by the greater or smaller proportion of sand present. In the local hollows and drainage lines the constant deposit of argillaceous particles has produced a stiff tenacious soil, especially adapted to rice cultivation, while in the beds of the great rivers, and on the wind-fretted water-sheds pure sand is commonly found. Where neither sand nor the saline efflorescence called reh is present, the soil is uniformly fertile, if only the rainfall be sufficient or means of irrigation be available, Throughout the greater part of the western plains, however, the insufficiency of rainfall is a permanent condition; and until recently the uniform aspect of the country was that of wide steppes of intrinsically fertile soil, useful, however, only as grazing grounds for herds of camels or cattle.

The Punjab may be divided into four great natural divisions: the Himalayan tract, the submontane tract, the eastern and western plains and the Salt range tract, which have Natural characteristics widely different from each other. The Divisions. Himalayan tract, which includes the Punjab hill states, consists of 20,000 sq. m. of sparsely inhabited mountain, with tiny hamlets perched on the hill-sides or nestling in the valleys The people consist chiefly of Rajputs, Kanets, Ghiraths, Brahmans and Dagis or menials. The castern and western plains, which are divided from each other by a line passing through Lahore, are dissimilar in character. The eastern are arable plains of moderate rainfall and almost without rivers, except along their northern and eastern edges. They are inhabited by the Hindu races of India, and contain the great cities of Delhi, Amritsar and Lahore. They formed, until the recent spread of irrigation, the most fertile, wealthy and populous portion of the province. The western plains, except where canal irrigation has been introduced, consist of arid pastures with scanty rainfall, traversed by the five great rivers, of which the broad valleys alone are cultivable. They are inhabited largely

worked such great changes. The Chenab and Jhelum Canal colonies of time the Lower Bari Doab and the Sind-Sagar Doab will be are already pronounced successes, and it is hoped that in process similarly fertilized. The submontane tract, skirting the foot of the hills, has an area of 10,000 sq. m., consisting of some of the most fertile and thickly populated portions of the province. Its populain race, religion and language, Mahommedanism being less prevalent, tion comes midway between the peoples of the hills and of the plains Hindi more generally spoken, and Rajputs and hill menials more common than in the plains. The Gujars form a special feature of this zone. Its only large town is Sialkot. The Salt range tract of Shahpur district, and consists of some 9000 sq. m. of broken includes the districts of Rawalpindi and Jhelum and a small portion and confused country.

the range.

Geology. By far the greater part of the Punjab is covered_by Salt range hills form a plateau with a steeply scarped face to the alluvial and wind-blown deposits of the plain of the Indus. The south, along which there is an axis of abrupt folding, accompanied by faulting. The rocks found in the Salt range belong to the Cambrian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic and Jurassic systems, while Tertiary beds cover the plateau behind. The extensive and valuable deposits of salt, from which the range takes its name. occur near the base of the Cambrian beds. Gypsum, kieserite and other salts are also found. Between the Cambrian and the Carboniferous beds there is an unconformity, which, however, is not very strongly marked, in spite of the lapse of time which it indicates. At the bottom of the Carboniferous series there is usually a boulder bed, the boulders in which have been brought from a distance and are scratched and striated as if by ice. It is generally admitted that this deposit, together with contemporaneous boulder beds in the peninsula of India, in Australia and in South Africa, indicate a southern glacial period in late Carboniferous times. Above the sandstone series at the base of which the boulder bed lies, come the Productus and Ceratite limestones. The former is believed to belong to the Upper Carboniferous and Permian, the latter to the Trias. Jurassic beds are found only in the western portion of Climate-Owing to its sub-tropical position, scanty rainfall and cloudless skies, and the wide expanse of untilled plains, the climate of the Punjab presents greater extremes of both heat and cold than any other part of India. From the middle of April to the middle of September it is extremely hot, while from the beginning of October to the end of March there is a magnificent cool season, resembling that of the Riviera, with warm bright days and cool nights. Frosts are frequent in January. In the first three months of the hot season, from April till the end of June, a dry heat is experienced, with a temperature rising to 120° F. in the shade. At the end of June the monsoon arrives, the rains break, and though the heat is less intense the air is moist, and from the middle of August the temperature gradually falls. This is the most unhealthy period of the year, being exceedingly malarious. The Punjab enjoys two well-marked seasons of rainend of September, on which the autumn crops and spring sowings fall; the monsoon period, lasting from the middle of June till the depend; and the winter rains, which fall early in January, and though often insignificant in amount materially affect the prosperity of the spring harvest. Excepting in the Himalayas the rainfall is greatest in the east of the province, as the Bombay monsoon is exhausted in its passage over the great plains of Sind and Rajputana, while the west winds from Baluchistan pass over an arid tract and leave such moisture as they may have collected on the western slopes of the Suliman range; so that the Punjab depends for its rain very largely on the south-east winds from the Bay of Bengal. The submontane tract has an annual average of 36 to 32 in., the eastern plains vary from 20 to 14 in., and the western plains from 10 to 5 in.

Minerals.-Besides rock-salt, the mineral products of the Punjab are not many. Limestone, good for building, is obtained at Chiniot on the Chenab and at a few other places. There are extensive alum-beds at Kalabagh on the Indus. A small quantity of coal is found in the Salt range in disconnected beds, the Dandot colliery in the Jhelum district being worked by the North-Western railway. Petroleum is found in small quantities at a number of places in Rawalpindi, being gathered from the surface of pools or collected in shallow pits. In almost all parts of the Punjab there is kankar, rough nodular limestone, commonly found in thick beds, a few feet below the surface of the ground, used for road metal and burned for lime.

Agriculture. As in other parts of India, there are commonly two harvests in the year. The spring crops are wheat, barley, gram, various vegetables, oil-seeds, tobacco and a little poppy: the autumn crops are rice, millets, maize, pulses, cotton, indigo and sugar-cane. Wheat has become the most important export of the province. In the spring of 1906 an area of 8 million acres was harvested, producing 31 million tons. Tea is cultivated in Kangra district. Flax has been produced successfully, but the cultivation has not been extended. Hops have been grown experimentally, for the Murree brewery, on neighbouring hills; the

cultivation in Kashmir has been more encouraging. Potatoes are grown extensively on cleared areas on the hills. The Punjab produces freely many of the Indian fruits. Grapes are grown in many of the Himalayan valleys where the rain is not excessive; but they are inferior to those brought from Kabul.

Forests.-The forest area of the Punjab consists of 9278 sq. m., of which 1916 sq. m. are reserved and 4909 sq. m. protected. The wasteful destruction of trees is checked in the hill forests rented from native states by the British government. The principal reserved forests are the deodar (Cedrus Deodara) and chil (Pinus longifolia) tracts in the hills, the plantations of shisham (Dalbergia Sissu) and sal (Shorea robusta) in the plains, and the fuel rakhs or preserves (Acacia, Prosopis, &c.).

Manufactures. Most of the native manufactures of the Punjab are those common to other parts of India, such as the ordinary cotton fabrics, plain woollen blankets, unglazed pottery, ropes and cord, grass matting, paper, leather-work, brass vessels, simple agricultural implements and the tools used in trades. Other manufactures, not so general, yet not peculiar to the Punjab, are woollen fabrics, carpets and shawls, silk cloths and embroidery, jewelry and ornamental metal-work, wood and ivory carving, turned and lacquered woodwork, glazed pottery, arms and armour and musical instruments. But some of these classes of manufacture are represented by work of special kinds or special excellence in particular parts of the Punjab, notably the silk fabrics of Multan and Bahawalpur; the carpets of Lahore and Amritsar; the kashi or glazed tilework (an ancient art still practised in a few places); koft-kari, inlaid metal-work (gold wire on steel), chiefly made at Gujrat and Sialkot; shawls and other fine woollen fabrics, made by Kashmiri work-people at Ludhiana and Nurpur, as well as in Kashmir; silk embroidery for shawls, scarfs and turbans, at Delhi, Lahore and Multan; embroidery on cloth for elephant-trappings, bed and table covers, &c., at Lahore and Multan; enamelled ornaments,

in Kangra and Multan; quill embroidery on leather, in Kangra and Simla; lacquered woodwork, at Pak Pattan. Cotton-weaving gives employment to about a million persons, but the most flourish ing industry is the woollen factories of Amritsar, Gurdaspur and elsewhere. Injury has been done to some of the native arts of the Punjab, as of other parts of India, by unwise copying of European patterns. The Lahore School of Art attempts to correct this and promote the study and execution of native forms and designs. The Lahore Museum contains illustrations of the arts and manufactures, as well as raw products, of the Punjab; and also a large collection of the sculptures, mostly Buddhist, and many of Greek workmanship, found in the north-west of the province.

Trade. The trade of the Punjab is almost wholly dependent upon agriculture. In a normal year the principal feature of the trade is the movement of wheat to Karachi, which is the chief port for the province. But in a bad season, when the rains fail, this movement is at once checked, the wheat is held up in reserve and an eastward movement in cheaper grains begins. In 1904 32 million maunds of wheat were exported, but 1905 was a bad season and the amount fell to 21 million maunds. The other

chief articles of export are pulse and raw cotton. The chief imports are European cotton and woollen piece-goods and yarn, Indian piece-goods, sugar, metals and jute goods. The through trade in the main staples of grain and piece-goods is in the hands of large European and native firms. In addition to the foreign trade there is a considerable provincial trade with the United Provinces, and a trans-frontier trade with Kashmir, Ladakh, Yarkand and Tibet on the north, and with Afghanistan on the west.

Irrigation.-Irrigation for large areas is from canals and from reservoirs, and for smaller areas from wells. The canals are of two kinds: those carrying a permanent stream throughout the year, and those which fill only on the periodical rising of the rivers, the latter being known as inundation canals." There are only a few parts of the country presenting facilities for forming reservoirs, by closing the narrow outlets of small valleys and storing the accumulated rainfall. The old canals made by the Mahommedan rulers, of which the principal are Feroz's Canal from the Jumna and the Hasli Canal from the Ravi, have been improved or reconstructed by the British government. The principal new canals are the Sirhind, drawn from the Sutlej near Rupar, which irrigates parts of the native states of Patiala, Nabha and Jhind, as well as British territory; the Bari Doab Canal from the Ravi; the Chenab Canal from the Chenab, irrigating the prosperous Chenab colony; and the Jhelum Canal irrigating the Jhelum colony. The total area irrigated by the canals of the province in 1905-1906 was 6,914,500 acres, the eight major works, the Western Jumna, Bari Doab, Sirhind, Lower Chenab, Lower Jhelum, Upper Sutlej, Sidhnai and Indus accounting for all but 751,000 acres. The ravages of the boll-worm in the cotton crop made 1906 an unfavourable year; but in spite of that the Lower Chenab Canal paid nearly 21% on the capital invested, the Bari Doab 11 % and the Western Jumna nearly 10%

Railways. The Punjab is well supplied with railways, which have their central terminus at Delhi. One main line of the NorthWestern runs from Umballa through Lahore and Rawalpindi towards Peshawar; another main line runs from Lahore to Multan,

and thence to the sea at Karachi; while a third runs along the left bank of the Indus, from Attock southwards. From Delhi to Umballa there are two lines, one of the North-Western through Meerut and Saharanpur in the United Provinces, and a more direct one, which is continued to Kalka, at the foot of the hills, whence a further continuation to Simla has been opened. The south-east of the province is served by two branches of the Rajputana system, which have their termini at Delhi and Ferozepore; and also by the Southern Punjab, which runs from Delhi to Bahawalpur.

Population. The total population of the Punjab (including native states) according to the census of 1901 was 24,754,737, showing an increase of 6.4% in the decade. The Jats, who number some five millions, form the backbone of the cultivating community. Large numbers of them have become Sikhs or Mahommedans in the tracts where those religions predominate. The Rajputs, with a total of over a million and threequarters, comprise tribes of different religions, races and social systems. By religion they are mostly Mahommedan, only about one-fourth being Hindus, while a very few are Sikhs. By race they include the ancient ruling tribes of the Jumna valley, the Tomar and Chauhan, which gave Delhi its most famous Hindu dynasties; the Bhattis of the south and centre, which have migrated from Bikanir and Jeysulmere into their present seats; the Sials of Jhang; and the Punwars of the south-west. In the northern or submontane districts the Rajputs also represent the old ruling tribes, such as the Chibbs of Gujrat, the Janjuas of the Salt range and others, while in Kangra district they preserve a very old type of Hindu aristocracy. The Gujars are an important agricultural and pastoral tribe. They are most numerous in the eastern half of the province and in the districts of the extreme north-west, especially in Gujrat, to which they have given their name. Baluchis and Pathans are strongly represented in the south-west. The distinctive religion of the Punjab is Sikhism (q.v.), though Sikhs form only 8.5% of the total population. Of the rest, Mahommedans are more numerous than Hindus.

Language. Of the 24,754,737 people in the Punjab about 18,000,000 speak the provincial language, Punjabi, which varies in character in different parts of the province. About 4,000,000 speak, Hindustani (see HINDOSTANI), this number including those whose ordinary vernacular is Hindi, but who understand and are gradually adopting the more comprehensive Hindustani. These two languages are the most generally used throughout the

province, but not equally in all parts. The other languages in use are more or less local. The hill dialects, known as Pahari, are akin to the language spoken in Rajputana; and so also is the speech of the Gujars. Hindustani is the language of the law courts and of all ordinary officials and other communications with chiefs and people.

Administration.-The administration is conducted by a lieutenant-governor, who is appointed by the governor-general, subject to the approval of the Crown. Two commissioners take the place of the board of revenue in most other provinces. A survival of the "non-regulation" system is to be found in the title of deputy-commissioner for the district officer elsewhere called collector. The highest judicial authority is styled the chief court, consisting of five judges, which corresponds to the high court elsewhere. A legislative council, first created in 1897, was enlarged in 1909 to 26 members, of whom ten are officials and five are elected. The province is distributed into five divisions or commissionerships. Most of the commissioners also exercise political functions over the native states within their jurisdiction.

Education. The Punjab University, which was founded in 1882, differs from other Indian universities in being more than a merely examining body. It is responsible for the management of the Oriental College at Lahore, and takes a part in the improvement of vernacular literature. It also conducts Oriental examinations side by side with those in English, and has been the first to introduce a series of examinations in science from matriculation to the degree, as well as a final school examination in clerical and commercial subjects. The higher and special educational institutions are the Lahore Government College, the Cambridge