represent this combination of rulers. If the dynasties were numbered thus before Manetho, the numeral may be the cause of Herodotus's confusion. After his father's death Psammetichus I. (664-610 B.C.) was able to defy the Assyrians and the Ethiopians, and during a long reign marked by intimate relations with the Greeks restored the prosperity of Egypt. The short reign of the second Psammetichus (594-589 B.C.) is noteworthy for the graffiti of his Greek, Phoenician and Carian mercenaries at Abu Simbel (q.v.). The third of the name was the unfortunate prince whose reign terminated after six months in the Persian conquest of Egypt (525 B.C.). It has been conjectured that the family of the Psammetichi was of Libyan origin; on the other hand, some would recognize negro features in a portrait of Psammetichus I., which might connect him with the Ethiopian rulers. See above, EGYPT: History; on the name, F. LI. Griffith, Catalogue of the Rylands demotic papyri; the portrait, H. Schäfer in Zeitschrift fur aegyptische Sprache, xxxiii. 116. (F. LL. G.) PSELLUS (Gr. Véλλos), the name of several Byzantine writers, of whom the following may be mentioned:

I. MICHAEL PSELLUS the elder, a native of Andros and a pupil of Photius, who flourished in the second half of the 9th century. His study of the Alexandrine theology, as well as of profane literature, brought him under the suspicions of the orthodox, and a former pupil of his, by name Constantine, accused him in an elegiac poem of having abandoned Christianity. In order to perfect his knowledge of Christian doctrine, Psellus had recourse to the instructions of Photius, and then replied to his adversary in a long iambic poem, in which he maintained his orthodoxy. None of his works has been preserved.

2. MICHAEL CONSTANTINE PSELLUS the younger, born in 1018 (probably at Nicomedia; according to some, at Constantinople) of a consular and patrician family. He studied at Athens and Constantinople, where he became intimate with John Xiphilinus. Under Constantine Monomachus (1042-1054) he became one of the most influential men in the empire. As professor of philosophy at the newly founded academy of Constantinople he revived the cult of Plato at a time when Aristotle held the field; this, together with his admiration for the old pagan glories of Hellas, aroused suspicions as to his orthodoxy. At the height of his success as a teacher he was recalled to court, where he became state secretary and vestarch, with the honorary title of Ύπατος τῶν Φιλοσόφων (prince of philosophers). Following the example of his friend Xiphilinus he entered the monastery of Olympus (near Prusa in Bithynia), where he assumed the name of Michael. But, finding the life little to his taste, he resumed his public career. Under Isaac Comnenus and Constantine Ducas he exercised great influence, and was prime minister during the regency of Eudocia and the reign of his pupil Michael Parapinaces (1071-1078). It is probable that he died soon after the fall of Parapinaces.

Living during the most melancholy period of Byzantine history, Psellus exhibited the worst faults of his age. He was servile and unscrupulous, weak, fond of intrigue, intolerably vain and ambitious. But as a literary man his intellect was of the highest order. In the extent of his knowledge, in keenness of observation, in variety of style, in his literary output, he has been compared to Voltaire; but it is perhaps as the forerunner of the great Renaissance Platonists that he will be chiefly remembered. His works embraced politics, astronomy, medicine, music, theology, jurisprudence, physics, grammar and history.

Of his works, which are very numerous, many have not yet been printed. We may mention: Chronographia (from 976-1077), which in spite of its bias in favour of the Ducases is a valuable history of his time, chiefly on domestic affairs; three Epitaphioi or funeral orations over the patriarchs Cerularius, Lichudes and Xiphilinus. His letters (nearly 500 in number) are also full of details of the period. A complete list of his works is given in Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca, x. 41; the most important have been published by C. Sathas in his Merarik Bißionen, iv, v. On Psellus himself see Leo Allatius, De Psellis et eorum scriptis (1634); E. Egger in Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques (1875); A. Rambaud in Revue historique (1877); P. V. Bezobrazov, Michel Psellos (1890; in Russian); C. Neumann, Die Weltstellung des byzantinischen Reiches vor den Kreuzzügen (1894); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur (1897); J. E. Sandys. Hist. of Classical Scholarship (1906), i. 411.

PSEUDO-DIPTERAL (Gr. Vevons, false, dis, double, and Tepov, a wing), the term given to a dipteral temple, i.e. in which there are two rows of columns round the naos, the inner row of which has been omitted to give more space for the processions or for shelter (see TEMPLE).

PSEUDONYM (Gr. Yevdwvvμos, having a false name, Vevons, false and ŏvoua, name), a false or invented name, particularly the fictitious name under which an author produces his work in order to conceal his identity. The same end is gained by publication without any name, i.e. anonymously (Gr. àvávupos, without a name). The body of works thus produced either without the author's name or under a fictitious name is known as anonymous and pseudonymous literature, and many books have been published affording a key to the identity of the various writers, forming an important section of bibliography. Though Fredericus Geisler published a short treatise on the subject entitled Larva detracta, &c., in 1669, the chief early work was that of Vincent Placcius (1642-1699) whose Theatrum anonymorum et pseudonymorum was published in 1708, edited by L. F. Vischer with a preface and life by J. A. Fabricius; supplements were published in 1711 and in 1740. The next important work, only a fragment of the purposed scheme, was that of Adrien Baillet (q.v.), under the title of Auteurs déguisés sous les noms étrangers, &c. (1690). Antoine Alexandre Barbier (q.v.) published his standard work Dictionnaire des ouvrages anonymes et pseudonymes in 1806-1809 (2nd ed., 1822-1827). This was followed by the Supercheries littéraires dévoilées of J. M. Quérard (q.v.). The third edition of Barbier's work, embodying Quérard and much new matter, was published in 1872-1879. This was edited by P. Gustave Brunet, who published a supplement in 1889. Other works in French are those of C. Jolliet, Les Pseudonymes du jour (1867 and 1884), and F. Drujon, Livres à clef (1888). Of German works in this sphere of bibliography the Index pseudonymorum, Wörterbuch der Pseudonymen of Emil Weller appeared in 1856, of which several supplements were published later. The most monumental of all works are the Deutsches Anonymen-Lexikon, 1501-1850, by M. Holzmann and H. Bohatta (1902-1907), supplement, 1851-1908 (1909), and the Deutsches Pseudonymen-Lexikon, by the same authors (1906). See also F. Sintenis, Die Pseudonyme der neueren deutschen Litteratur (1899), and the supplementary volume (1909), to Meyers's Konversations-Lexikon (6th ed.). The chief Italian work is the Dizionario di opere anonime e pseudonime di scrittori italiani, by G. Melzi (1848-1859), with supplement by G. Passano (1887). The Dutch Vermomde en naamlooze schrijvers . . . der Nederl. en Vlaamschen letteren, by J. I. van Doorninck (1883-1885), was a second edition of an earlier work. The Academy of Upsala is publishing, under the editorship of L. Bygden, a Swedish dictionary Svenskt anonym och pseudonym lexikon (1898), &c. England was late in entering the field. The first work actually published was the Handbook of Fictitious Names, by R. Thomas (Olphar Hamst) (1868). Samuel Halkett, and the successor to his compilations, John Laing, both died before their work was published; edited and revised by Miss C. Laing it appeared in 1882-1888 in 4 vols. as the Dictionary of the Anonymous and Pseudonymous Literature of Great Britain, by S. Halkett and J. Laing. This remains the standard work on the subject in English. Other works are W. Cushing, Initials and Pseudonyms (American and English from the beginning of the 18th century); 2nd series (1886, 1888), and Anonyms (1890); F. Marchmont, A Concise Handbook of Literature issued under Pseudonyms or Initials (1896); see also especially W. P. Courtney, The Secrets of our National Literature (1908), the first chapter of which contains a sketch of the history of the subject, to which the above account is mainly due. The anonymous and pseudonymous Latin literature of the middle ages has been treated in modern times by A. Franklin, Dictionnaire des noms, &c., latins 1100-1530 (1875), and A. G. Little, Initia operum latinorum saec. 13-15 (1904).

PSEUDO-PERIPTERAL (Gr. Veudhs, false, repl, round, Tepov, a wing), a term in architecture given to a temple in which the columns surrounding the naos have had walls built

between them, so that they become engaged columns, as in the great temple at Agrigentum. In Roman temples, in order to increase the size of the cella, the columns on either side and at the rear became engaged columns, the portico only having isolated columns. (See TEMPLE.)

PSEUDOPOD, PSEUDOPODIUM, the name given to an extension of the naked protoplasm of certain Protozoa, notably the Sarcodina (q.v.), for crawling or creeping or for the prehension of food, but not for active swimming (see also AMOEBA). PSILOMELANE, a mineral consisting of hydrous manganese oxide with variable amounts of barium, potassium, &c. It is sometimes considered to be a hydrous manganese manganate, but of doubtful composition. The amount of manganese present corresponds to 70-80% of manganous oxide with 10-15% of "available" oxygen. The mineral is amorphous and occurs as botryoidal and stalactitic masses with a smooth shining surface and submetallic lustre. The name has reference to this characteristic appearance, being from the Greek λós (naked, smooth) and μéλas (black); a Latinized form is calvonigrite, and a German name with the same meaning is Schwarzer Glaskopf. Psilomelane is readily distinguished from other hydrous manganese oxides (manganite and wad) by its greater hardness (H.= 5); | the sp. gr. varies from 37 to 4.7. The streak is brownishblack and the fracture smooth. Owing to its amorphous nature, the mineral often contains admixed impurities, such as iron hydrates. It is soluble in hydrochloric acid with evolution of chlorine. It is a common and important ore of manganese, occurring under the same conditions and having the same commercial applications as pyrolusite (q.v.). It is found at many localities; amongst those which have yielded typical botryoidal specimens may be mentioned the Restormel iron mine at Lostwithiel in Cornwall, Brendon Hill in Somerset, Hoy in the Orkneys, Sayn near Coblenz, and Crimora in Augusta county, Virginia. With pyrolusite it is extensively mined in Vermont, Virginia, Arkansas and Nova Scotia.

PSKOV, a government of the lake-region of north-west Russia, which extends from Lake Peipus to the source of the west Dvina, having the governments of St Petersburg and Novgorod on the N., Tver and Smolensk on the E., Vitebsk on the S. and Livonia on the W. It has an area of 17,064 sq. m. In the south-east it extends partly over the Alaun or Vorobiovy heights, which stretch west into Vitebsk and send to the north a series of irregular ranges which occupy the north-western parts of Pskov. A depression 120 m. long and 35 m. broad, drained by the Lovat and the Polista, occupies the interval between these two hilly tracts; it is covered with forests and marshes, the only tracts | suitable for human occupation being narrow strips of land along the banks of the rivers, or between the marshes, and no communication is possible except along the watercourses. With the exception of the south-eastern corner, where Carboniferous rocks crop out, nearly the whole of the government consists of Devonian strata of great thickness, with deposits of gypsum and white sandstone, the latter extensively quarried for building purposes. The bottom moraine of the Scandinavian and Finnish ice-sheet formerly extended over the whole of this region, and has left behind it numerous ridges (kames or eskers), the upper parts consisting of Glacial sands and post-Glacial clays, sands and peat-bogs. The soil is thus not only infertile, but also badly drained, and only those parts of the territory which are covered with thicker strata of post-Glacial deposits are suitable for agriculture.

The rivers are numerous and belong to three separate basins to Lakes Peipus and Pskov the rivers in the north-west, to Lake Ilmen those in the middle, and to that of the Dvina the rivers in the south-east. A great number of small streams pour into Lake Pskov, the chief being the Velikaya. The Lovat and the Shelon, belonging to the basin of Lake Ilmen, are both navigable; while the west Dvina flows for 100 m. on the south border of the government or within it, and is used only for floating timber. There are no fewer than 850 lakes in Pskov, with a total area of 591 sq. m. The largest is Lake Pskov, which is 50 m. long and 13 broad, covers 300 sq. m. and has a depth of 3 to 18 ft.; it is

connected by a channel, 40 m. long and 3 to 10 wide, with Lake Peipus. The marshes on the banks of the Polista are nearly 1250 sq. m. in extent. Forests occupy nearly one-third (32%) of the entire area, and in some districts (Kholm, Toropets, Porkhov) as much as two-thirds of the surface. Large pine forests are met with in the north; in other parts the birch and the aspen prevail; but almost one-quarter of the forest area is overgrown with brushwood.

The climate is very moist and changeable. The average temperature is 41° F. (17.1° in January and 64.8° in July). The population of the government numbered 1,135,639 in 1897, when there were 584,931 women, and the urban population only 72,623. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,275,300. With the exception of 25,460 Esthonians (1897), the inhabitants are almost entirely Great Russians. They belong mainly to the Orthodox Greek Church, but the official number of Nonconformists, 32,066, is far below the mark. There are also about 12,000 Lutherans and 4000 Roman Catholics. The government is divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in 1897, are Pskov (q.v.), Kholm (5899), Novorzhev (2973), Opochka (5658), Ostrov (6252), Porkhov (5573), Toropets (7489) and Velikiye Luki (8481). Between 1875 and 1896 the peasantry increased their landed possessions by 91%, and the merchants bought considerable areas from the nobles, who altogether sold 43% of their estates. Although the soil is far from fertile, no less than 30% of the total area is under crops and 12% under meadows. The crops principally cultivated are rye, oats, barley, pease, potatoes, flax (for which the government is famous) and hemp. Grain has to be imported, but oats are exported. Owing to the efforts of the zemstvos, there has been a notable improvement in agriculture, especially in dairyfarming. Fishing in Lake Pskov and the smaller lakes is a source of income. The manufacture of wooden wares for local needs, ship-building, the timber trade, and the weaving of linen and woollens for local requirements are additional sources of income. Flax, flour, tobacco factories, saw-mills, distilleries and breweries are the principal industrial establishments. The population engage also in the preparation of lime, in stone-quarrying, and in the transport of merchandise. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)

PSKOV, in German, Pleskau, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name and an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church, situated on both banks of the Velikaya River, 9 m. S.E. from Lake Pskov and 170 m. by rail S.W. of St Petersburg. Pop. (1897), 30,424. The chief part of the town, with its kremlin on a hill, occupies the right bank of the river, to which the ruins of its old walls (built in 1266) descend; the Zapskovye stretches along the same bank of the Velikaya below its confluence with the Pskova; and the Zavelichye occupies the left bank of the Velikaya-all three keeping their old historical names. The cathedral in the kremlin has been four times rebuilt since the 12th century, the present edifice dating from 1691-1699, and contains some very old shrines, as also the graves of the bishops of Pskov and of several Pskov princes, including those of Dovmont (d. 1299), and Vsevolod (d. 1138). The church of Dmitriy Solunskiy dates originally from the 12th century; there are others belonging to the 14th and 15th. The Spaso-Mirozhskiy monastery, founded in 1156, and restored in 1890-1903, has many remarkable antiquities. The ruins of numerous rich and populous monasteries in or near the town attest its former wealth and greatness. The present town is ill-built, chiefly of wood, and shows traces of decay. It has a cadets' school, a normal school for teachers, and a few lower technical schools, an archaeological museum (1903) and some scientific societies. The private collections (coins, antiquities, art works, &c.) of Messrs Pushkin and Sudhov are two of the most remarkable in Russia. The manufactures are unimportant. Since the completion of the St Petersburg and Warsaw railway the trade of Pskov has increased. Pskov has regular steam communication with Dorpat.

History.-Pskov, formerly the sister republic of Novgorod, and one of the oldest cities of Russia, maintained its independence and its free institutions until the 16th century, being thus

On this story see L. Friedländer, "Ueber das Märchen von Amor und Psyche" (in Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms, 1888, vol. i.; for a treatment of the Greek conception, see E. Rohde, Psyche, 1894). For Psyche in art see A. Conze, De Psyches imagi nibus quibusdam (1855); Max Collignon, Essai sur les monuments grecs et romains relatifs au mythe de Psyché (1877).

PSYCHICAL RESEARCH, a term which may be defined, partially, as an examination into the amount of truth contained in world-wide superstitions. Thus when Saul disguised himself before his séance with the witch of Endor, and when Croesus scientifically tested the oracles of Greece (finding clairvoyance or lucidité in the Delphic Pythoness), Saul and Croesus were psychical researchers. A more systematic student was the Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry. In his letter to Anebo, answered in Пepi uvornplwv by Iamblichus (?) we find Porphyry concerned with the usual alleged phenomena-prophecy; the power of walking through fire unharmed; the movements of inanimate objects, untouched; the "levitation" of "mediums"; apparitions of spirits, their replies to questions, the falsehood of those replies; and so forth. Similar phenomena fill the lives of the saints and the records of witch trials. Apparitions, especially of the dying or the dead; the stereotyped disturbances in haunted houses; and the miraculous healing of diseases, are current in classical and medieval records. The exhibition of remote or even future events, to gazers in mirrors, crystals, vessels full of water, or drops of ink or blood, is equally notorious in classical, Oriental, medieval and modern literature; while the whole range of these phenomena is found in Chinese, Japanese, Hindu, ancient American, Red Indian and savage belief.

At various periods, and in proportion to the scientific methods. of the ages, attempts have been made to examine these things scientifically. St Augustine wrote on the whole topic with remarkable acuteness and considerable scepticism; his treatment of miracles of healing is especially noteworthy. After Petrus Thyraeus (1546-1601), S. J. Wierus, Ludwig Lavater (1527-1586), and other authors of the 16th century, came the labours of Glanvill, Henry More, Richard Baxter, Boyle, Cotton Mather, and others in England and America, during and after the Restoration. Attempts were made to get first-hand evidences and Glanvill investigated the knocking drummer of Tedworth in situ (1663). The disturbances in the house of the Wesleys at Epworth (1716 and later) were famous, and have copious contemporary record. David Hume believed himself to have settled questions which, when revived by the case of Swedenborg and the experiments of Mesmer and his pupils, puzzled and interested Kant. The influence of Mesmer has never died out; the fact of "animal magnetism" (with such examples as the" divining rod," and the phenomena in general) was accepted in his manner, and explained, by Hegel. The researches of Braid (c. 1840-1850) gave a new name, "hypnotism," to what had been called mesmerism or "animal magnetism "; a name conveying no theory of "magnetic " or other "fluids." "Mesmerism" implies a theory of emanations from the operator to the patient; "hypnotism" implies no such hypothesis. In the middle of the 19th century Dr Gregory and Dr Mayo published their entertaining but unsystematic works,

In 1882 the Society for Psychical Research, under the presidency of Henry Sidgwick, professor of moral philosophy in the university of Cambridge, was founded expressly for the purpose of introducing scientific method into the study of the " debateable phenomena." Other early members were Edmund Gurney, F. W. H. Myers, Andrew Lang, Professor Barrett, Mrs Sidgwick, F. Podmore, Lord Tennyson, Lord Rayleigh and Professor Adams; while among presidents were Professor Balfour Stewart, A. J. Balfour, Professor William James of Harvard and Sir William Crookes. The society has published many volumes of Proceedings. In France and in Germany and Italy many men of distinguished scientific position have examined the Italian "medium" Eusapia Palladino, and have contributed experiments, chiefly in the field of hypnotism and "telepathy." Hypnotism has been introduced into official experimental psychology and medicine with some success.

It is plain that the range of psychical research is almost unlimited. It impinges on anthropology (with its study of the savage theory of spirits-animism-and of diabolical possession), and on the usual province of psychology, in the problems of the hallucinations both of morbid patients and of people in normal mental health. The whole topic of the unconscious or subconscious self is made matter not of mere metaphysical speculation (as by Kant and Hamilton), but of exact observation, and, by aid of hypnotism and automatism, of direct experiment. The six original committees of the society undertook the following themes:

1. An examination of the nature and extent of any influence which may be exerted by one mind upon another, apart from any generally recognized mode of perception. 2. The study of hypnotism and the forms of so-called mesmeric trance, clairvoyance and other allied phenomena.

3. A critical revision of Reichenbach's researches, into certain organizations called "sensitive."

4. A careful investigation of any reports, resting on strong testimony, regarding apparitions at the moment of death or otherwise, or regarding disturbances in houses reputed to be haunted.

5. An inquiry into the various physical phenomena commonly called spiritualistic, with an attempt to discover their causes and general laws.

6.

The collection and collation of existing materials bearing on the history of these subjects,

To these themes we might now add the study of "crystalgazing," and of the hallucinatory visions which a fair percentage of people observe when staring into any clear deep, usually a glass ball; but ink (with some experimenters) does as well, or a glass water-jug. Of these themes, the third has practically led to nothing. The experiments of Reichenbach on the perception of flames issuing from magnets have not been verified. The collection of historical examples, again (6), has not been much pursued by the society, except in Mr Gurney's studies of witchcraft in Phantasms of the Living, by himself, Mr Podmore and Mr Myers. On the other hand, a vast number of experi ments were made in thought transference." (1) Diagrams drawn by A were reproduced by B; cards thought of, numbers

"

and so forth were also reproduced in conditions that appeared | to make the normal transference of the idea by sound, sight or touch impossible, and to put chance coincidence out of court. In one or two instances collusion was detected ingeniously. In others two explanatory theories have been broached. People may accidentally coincide in their choice of diagrams, or the "unconscious whispering" of a person fixing his mind hard on a number, card or what not may be heard or seen. But coincidence in diagrams does not apply when a ship, dumb-bells, a candlestick or a cat is drawn by both experimenters; nor can "unconscious whispering" be heard or seen when the experimenters are in different rooms. On the whole, the inquirers convinced themselves that one mind or brain may influence another mind or brain through no recognized channel of sense. This is, of course, an old idea (see Walton's Life of Donne, and his theory of the appearance of Mrs Donne, with a dead baby, to Dr Donne in Paris). The method of communication remains a problem. Are there "brain waves," analogous to the X-rays, from brain to recipient brain, or does mind touch mind in some unheard-of way? The former appears to be the hypothesis preferred by Sir William Crookes and Professor Flournoy (Des Indes à la planète Mars, pp. 363-365). On this showing there is nothing "supranormal" in " telepathy," as it is called. The latter theory of "a purely spiritual communication is argued for by Mr Myers (Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, xv. 407-410). If we accept telepathy as experimentally demonstrated, and regard it as a physical process, we reduce (4), "apparitions at the moment of death or other wise," to a normal though not very usual fact. Everyone would admit this in the case of mere empty hallucinations. A, in Paisley, sees P, in London, present in his room. P is neither dying nor in any other crisis, and A is, as both continue to be, in his normal health. Such experiences are by no means very uncommon, when there is nothing to suggest that P has exercised any telepathic influence on A. On the other hand, in Phantasms of the Living, and in the report on the Census of Hallucinations (Proceedings, vol. x.), the society has published large numbers of "coincidental hallucinations, the appearance of P to A coinciding with the death or other crisis of the distant P. That such" wraiths" do occur is the popular and savage belief. it may be urged, many hallucinations occur and many deaths. People only remember the hallucinations which happened, or were made by erroneous reckoning to seem to happen, coincidentally with the decease of the person seen. This is not quite true, for a hallucination so vivid as to be taken for a real person and addressed as such is not easily forgotten by a sober citizen, even if "nothing happened" afterwards. None the less, the coincidental hallucinations have certainly a better chance of being remembered, while fancy is apt to exaggerate the closeness of the coincidence. Nothing can demonstrate that coincidences between death and hallucination occur more frequently than by the doctrine of chance they ought to do, except a census of the whole population. In the present indifference of government to psychical science no party is likely to institute such a census, and even if it were done, the frivolity of mankind would throw doubt on the statistics. It would be necessary to crossexamine each "percipient," and to ask for documentary.or other corroborative evidence in each case.

But,

The Society for Psychical Research collected statistics in proportion to its resources. More than 17,000 answers were received to questions rather widely circulated. The affirmative respondents were examined closely, their mental and physical health and circumstances inquired into, and collectors of evidence were especially enjoined to avoid selecting persons known to be likely to return affirmative replies. There were 80 cases at first hand in which the death of the person seen coincided, within twelve hours, with the visual hallucination of his or her presence, out of 352 instances of such hallucinations. By way of arriving at the true proportions, the hallucinations which coincided with nothing were multiplied by four. In this way allowance was made for obliviousness of non-coincidental ballucinations. The verdict of the committee was that, on the

evidence before them, hallucinations coincided with deaths in a ratio of 440 times more than was to be expected by the law of probabilities. The committee came to the conclusion that a relation of cause and effect does exist between the death of A and the vision of A beheld by P. The hallucination is apparently caused from without by some unexplained action of the mind or brain of A on the brain or mind of P. This effect is also traced, where death does not occur, for example, in the many instances of false "arrivals." A is on his way to X, or is dreaming that he is on his way, and is seen at X by P, or by P, Q and R, as may happen. These cases are common, and were explained in Celtic philosophy by the theory of the " Co-Walker," a kind of "astral body." The facts are accounted for in the same way by Scandinavian popular philosophy. Possibly in many instances such hallucinations are the result of expectancy in the beholder. Yet if we go out to shoot or fish, excepting to encounter grouse or salmon, we do not usually see grouse or salmon if they are not there! Where the arrival is not expected, this explanation fails. In "second sight," even among savages, these occurrences are not infrequent, and doubtless admit of an explanation by telepathy. In two instances, known at first hand to the present writer, persons dreamed, at a distance, that they entered their own homes. In one the person was seen, in the other distinctly heard, by the inmates of his or her house. In several of these examples knocks are heard, as in spiritualist séances. In fact, if we accept the evidence, living but remote persons may, unconsciously, produce effects of sounds and of phantasms exactly like those which popular belief ascribes to the spirits of the dead.

If we admit the evidence, of which a great body exists, and if we attribute the phenomena to telepathy, curious inferences may be drawn. Thus if the phenomena are such as only the spirits of the dead could be credited with producing-if the dead were frequently recognized by various good witnesses—~ it would follow (on the hypothesis of telepathy) that telepathy is not a physical process caused by material waves or rays from living brain to brain, the dead having no brains in working order. On the other hand, if living brains may thus affect each other, a subjective hallucination experienced by the living A may conceivably be "wired on" to the living P. Thus A, in a given house, may have a mere subjective hallucination of the presence of the dead B, and may, unconsciously, infect with that hallucination other persons who come to the house. Thus once admit that any living brain may infect any other, and it-becomes practically impossible for a spirit of the dead to prove his identity. Any information which he may give in any way must either be known to living people, however remote, or unknown. If known to a living person, he may, unconsciously, "wire it on " to the seer. If wholly unknown to everybody, the veracity of the information cannot be demonstrated, except later, if it refers to the unknown future. Thus the theory of telepathy, with a little good will, puts the existence and activity of the souls of the dead beyond possibility of proof.

These remarks apply to the researches of the society into alleged isolated phantasms of the dead, and into "haunted houses." As to the former cases, it is admitted on all hands that sane and sober people may have subjective hallucinations of the presence of living friends, not dying or in any other crisis. Obviously then, the appearance of a dead person may equally be an empty hallucination. Thus, a member of the House of Commons, standing at the entrance of a certain committee-room, saw another member, of peculiar aspect and gait, pass him and enter the room, his favourite haunt. Several hours passed before the percipient suddenly recollected that the other member had been dead for some months. Even superstition cannot argue that this appearance was a ghost. In the same way Hawthorne, the celebrated novelist, frequently, he has written, saw a dead club-man in his club. But suppose, for the sake of argument, that at intervals members of the house kept seeing such appearances of dead members of parliament, and suppose that they had never seen the prototypes in their lifetime, but yet correctly described them: then it might be said that their hallucinations