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or mandible can be opened and closed. It is regarded as a modified zooecium, the polypide of which has become vestigial, although it is commonly represented by a sense-organ, bearing tactile hairs, situated on what may be termed the palate. The operculum of the normal zooecium has become the mandible, while the occlusor muscles have become enormous. In the vibraculum the part representing the zooecium is relatively smaller, and the mandible has become the "seta," an elongated chitinous lash which projects far beyond the zooecial portion of the structure. In Caberea, the vibracula are known to move synchronously, but co-ordination of this kind is otherwise unknown in the Polyzoa. The avicularia and vibracula give valuable aid to the systematic study of the Cheilostomata. In its least differentiated form the avicularium occupies the place of an ordinary zooecium ("vicarious avicularium"), from which it is distinguished by the greater development of the operculum and its muscles, while the polypide is normally not functional. Avicularia of this type occur in the common Flustra foliacea, in various species of Membranipora, and in particular in the Onychocellidae, a remarkable family common in the Cretaceous period and still existing. In the majority of Cheilostomes, the avicularia are, so to speak, forced out of the ordinary series of zooecia, with which they are rigidly connected. There are comparatively few cases in which, as in Bugula, they are mounted on a movable joint. Although at first sight the arrangement of the avicularia in Cheilostomes appears to follow no general law some method is probably to be made out on closer study. They occur in particular in relation with the orifice of the zooecium, and with that of the compensation-sac. This delicate structure is frequently guarded by an avicularium at its entrance, while avicularia are also commonly found on either side of the operculum or in other positions close to that structure. It can hardly be doubted that the function of these avicularia is the protection of the tentacles and compensation-sac. The suggestion that they are concerned in feeding does not rest on any definite evidence, and is probably erroneous. But avicularia or vibracula may also occur in other places on the backs of unilaminar erect forms, along the sutural lines of the zooecia and on their frontal surface. These are probably important in checking overgrowth by encrusting organisms, and in particular by preventing larvae from fixing on the zoarium. Vibracula are of less frequent occurrence than avicularia, with which they may coexist as in Scrupocellaria, where they occur on the backs of the unilaminar branches. In the so-called Selenariidae, probably an unnatural association of genera which have assumed a free discoidal form of zoarium, they may reach a very high degree of development, but Busk's suggestion that in this group they "may be subservient to locomotion needs verification. Development and Affinities.-It is generally admitted that the larva of the Entoprocta (fig. 11) has the structure of a Trochosphere. This appears to indicate weled bogate Bapami so that the Polyzoa are remotely ows lo atia liziq T allied to other phyla in which babbodars this type of larva prevails, and died dogs in particular to the Mollusca and a Chaetopoda, as well as to the hon Rotifera, which are regarded as persistent Trochospheres. The praeoral portion (lower in fig. 11) constitutes the greater part of nph the larva and contains most of the viscera. It is terminated by a well-developed structure (fg) corresponding with the apical sense-organ of ordinary TrochoTspheres, and an excretory organ (nph) of the type familiar in these larvae occurs on the ventral fgside of the stomach. The central nervous system (x) is highly developed, and in Loxosoma bears Heiderave odnios leiba pair of eyes. The larva swims by a ring of cilia, which corresponds with the praeoral circlet of a Trochosphere. The oral surface, on which are situated the mouth (m) and anus (a), is relatively small. The apical sense organ is used for temporary attachment to the maternal vestibule in which development takes place, but permanent fixation is effected by the oral surface. This is followed by the atrophy of many of the larval organs, including the brain, the sense-organ and the ciliated ring. The alimentary canal persists and revolves in the median plane through an angle of 180°, accompanied by part of the larval vestibule, the space formed by the retraction of the oral surface. The vestibule breaks through to the exterior, and the tentacles, which have been developed within it, are brought into relation with the external water.

Hin

of Germ of low h

Rügen

smooth in t

FIG. 11.-Larva of Pedicellina. 0, Anus.qug dide fg. Apical sense-organ. da hg, Intestine.

m

pora pilosa, the pelagic larva is known as Cyphonautes, and it has a structure not unlike that of the larval Pediceliina. The principal differences are the complication of the ciliated band, the absence of the excretory organ, the great lateral compression of the body, the possession of a pair of shells protecting the sides, the presence of an organ known as the " pyriform organ," and the occurrence of a sucker in a position corresponding with the depression seen between (m) and (a) in fig. 11. Fixation takes place by means of this sucker, which is everted for the purpose, part of its epithelium becoming the basal ectoderm of the ancestrula. The pyriform organ has probably assisted the larva to find an appropriate place for fixation (cf. Kupelwieser, 18); but, like the alimentary canal and most of the other larval organs, it undergoes a process of histolysis, and the larva becomes the ancestrula, containing the primary brown body derived from the purely larval organs. The polypide is formed, as in an ordinary zooecium after the loss of its polypide, from a polypide-bud. The Cyphonautes type has been shown by Prouho (24) to occur in two or three widely different species of Cheilostomata and Ctenostomata in which the eggs are laid and develop in the external water. In most Ectoprocta, however, the development takes place internally or in an ovicell, and a considerable quantity of yolk is present. The alimentary canal, which may be represented by a vestigial structure, is accordingly not functional, and the larva does not become pelagic. A pyriform organ is present in most Gymnolaemata as well as the sucker by which fixation is effected. As in the case of Cyphonautes, the larval organs degenerate and the larva becomes the ancestrula from which a polypide is developed as a bud. In the Cyclostomata the primary embryo undergoes repeated fission without developing definite organs, and each of the numerous pieces so formed becomes a free larva, which possesses no alimentary canal. Finally, in the Phylactolaemata, the larva becomes an ancestrula before it is hatched, and one or several polypides may be present when fixation is effected.

The development of the Ectoprocta is intelligible on the hypothesis that the Entoprocta form the starting-point of the series. On the view that the Phylactolaemata are nearly related to Phoronis (see PHORONIDEA), it is extremely difficult to draw any conclusions with regard to the significance of the facts of development. If the Phylactolaemata were evolved from the type of structure represented by Phoronis or the Pterobranchia (q.v.), the Gymnolaemata should be a further modification of this type, and the comparative study of the embryology of the two orders would appear to be meaningless. It seems more natural to draw the conclusion that the resemblances of the Phylactolaemata to Phoronis are devoid of phylogenetic significance. Vitol Dobsodoma bad odwadget BIBLIOGRAPHY. For general accounts of the structure and development of the Polyzoa the reader's attention is specially directed to 12, 14, 6, 25, 1, 2, 17, 26, 18, 23, 3, in the list given below; for an historical account to 1; for a full bibliography of the group, to 22; for fresh-water forms, to 1-3, 7-10, 17; for an indispensable synonymic list of recent marine forms, to 15; for Entoprocta, to 10, 11, 24; for the classification of Gymnolaemata, to 21, 14, 4. 13, 20; for Palaeontology, to 27, 22.

References to important works on the species of marine Polyzoa by Busk, Hincks, Jullien, Levinsen, MacGillivray, Nordgaard, Norman, Waters and others are given in the Memoir (22) by Nickles and Bassler. (1) Allman, "Monogr. Fresh-water Polyzoa," Ray Soc. (1856). (2) Braem, "Bry. d. süssen Wassers," Bibl. Zool. Bd. ii. Heft 6 (1890). (3) Braem, "Entwickel. v. Plumatella," ibid., Bd. x. Heft 23 (1897). (4) Busk, "Report on the Polyzoa," "Challenger" Rep. pt. xxx. (1884), 50 (1886). (5) Caldwell," Phoronis," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1883). xxxiv. 371. (6) Calvet, "Bry. Ectoproctes Marins, Trav. Inst. Montpellier (new series), Mém. 3 (1900). (7) Cori, "Nephridien d. Cristatella," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1893), Iv. 626. (8) Davenport, "Cristatella," Bull. Mus. Harvard (1890-1891), xx. 101. (9) Davenport," Paludicella," ibid. (1891-1892), xxii. 1. (10) Davenport, Urnatella," ibid. (1893), xxiv. 1. (11) Ehlers, "Pedicellineen," Abh. Ges. Göttingen (1890), xxxvi. (12) Harmer, "Polyzoa," Cambr. Nat. Hist. (1896), ii. 463; art. "Poly zoa," Ency. Brit. (Toth ed., 1902), xxxi. 826. (13) Harmer, "Morph. Cheilostomata," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1903), xlvi. 263. (14) Hincks, Hist. Brit. Mar. Pol." (1880). (15) Jelly, "Syn. Cat. Recent Mar. Bry." (1889). (16) Jullien and Calvet,

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Bryozoaires," Rés camp. sci. prince de Monaco (1903), xxiii. (17) Kraepelin, Deutsch. Süsswasser-Bry., Abh. Ver. Hamburg (1887), x.; (1892), xii. (18) Kupelwieser, Cyphonautes," Zoologico (1906), Bd. xix. Heft 47. (19) Lankester, art. Polyzoa," Ency. Bril. (9th ed., 1885), xix. 429. (20) Levinsen, "Bryozoa," Vid. Medd. Naturk. Foren. (Copenhagen, 1902). (21) MacGillivray, "Cat. Mar. Pol. Victoria, P. Roy. Soc. Victoria (1887), xxiii. 187. (22) Nickles and Bassler, "Synopsis Amer. Foss. Bry.," Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey (1900), No. 173. (23) Pace, Dev. Flustrella," Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc. (1906), 50, pt. 3. 435. (24) Prouho, Loxosomes," Arch, Zool. Exp. (2) (1891), ix. 91. (25) Prouho, "Bryozoaires," ibid. (2) (1892), x. 557.1(26) Seeliger," Larvenu. Verwandtschaft," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1906), xxxiv. 1. (27) Ulrich, "Fossil Polyzoa," in Zittel's Text-book of Palaeontology, Eng. ed. (1900), i. 257. (S. F. H.) foveal beqadagonalaninirle tematic

POMADE, or POMATUM, a scented ointment, used formerly | axils of some of which proceed the brilliant scarlet flowers. for softening and beautifying the skin, as a lip-salve, &c., but These are raised on a short stalk, and consist of a thick fleshy now principally applied to the hair. It was made originally cylindrical or bell-shaped calyx-tube, with five to seven short from the juice of apples (Lat. pomum), whence the name. lobes at the top. From the throat of the calyx proceed five to

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POMANDER (from Fr. pomme d'ambre, i.c. apple of amber), a ball made of perfumes, such as ambergris (whence the name), musk, civet, &c., and formerly worn or carried in a case, also known by the same name, as a protection against infection in times of pestilence or merely as a useful article to modify bad smells. The globular cases which contained the "pomanders" were hung from a neck-chain or attached to the girdle, and were usually perforated and made of gold or silver. Sometimes they contained several partitions, in each of which was placed a different perfume. There is an early Spanish pomander set with emeralds, and a fine 16th-century one, dredged from the Thames, in the British Museum.

POMBAL, SEBASTIÃO JOSE DE CARVALHO E MELLO, MARQUESS OF (1699-1782), Portuguese statesman, was born at Soure near Pomba, on the 13th of May 1699. He was the son of Manoel de Carvalho e Athayde, a country gentleman (fidalgo) and of his wife D. Theresa Luiza de Mendonça e Mello. He studied law at Coimbra University, served for a short time, as a private in the army, and afterwards lived the life of a man about town in Lisbon, sharing in the diversions of the "Mohocks" who then infested the streets. In 1733 he abducted and married D. Theresa de Noronha, a widow belonging to one of the most distinguished families in Portugal. He then retired to Soure, where, on the recommendation of Cardinal de Motta, King John V. commissioned him to write a series of biographical studies. In 1739 he was sent as Portuguese ambassador to. London, where he remained until 1745. He was then transferred to Vienna. His first wife having died on the 7th of January 1739, he married, on the 18th of December 1745, Leonora Ernestine Daun, daughter of General Count Daun. In 1749 he was recalled to take up the post of secretary of state for foreign affairs and war. The appointment was ratified on the 3rd of August 1750, by King Joseph, who had succeeded John V. in that year. Carvalho's career from 1750 to 1777 is part of the history of Portugal. Though he came into power only in his 51st year, without previous administrative experience, he was able to reorganize Portuguese education, finance, the army and the navy. He also built up new industries, promoted the development of Brazil and Macao, and expelled the Jesuits. His complete ascendancy over the mind of King Joseph dates from the time of the great Lisbon earthquake (Nov. 1, 1755). Though the famous words "Bury the dead and feed the living" were probably not spoken by him, they summarize his action at this time of calamity. In June 1759 his suppression of the so-called "Tavora plot gained for him the title of count of Oeyras; and in September 1770 he was made marquess of Pombal. His severe administration had made many enemies, and his life had been attempted in 1769. Soon after the death of King Joseph, in 1777, Pombal was dismissed from office; and he was only saved from impeachment by the death of his bitterest opponent, the queen-mother, Mariana Victoria, in January 1781. On the 16th of August a royal decree forbade him to reside within twenty leagues of the court. He died at Pombal on the 8th of May 1782.

See, in addition to the works dealing with the period 1750-1777 and quoted under PORTUGAL: History; S.J.C.M. (Pombal), Relação abreviada, &c. (Paris, 1758); Memoirs of the Court of Portugal, &c. (London, 1765); Anecdotes du ministère de Pombal (Warsaw, 1781); Administration du marquis de Pombal (4 vols., Amsterdam, 1787): Cartas do marques de Pombal (3 vols., Lisbon, 1820-1824); J. Smith, Count of Carnota, Memoirs of the Marquess of Pombal, &c. (London, 1843); F. L. Gomes, Le Marquis de Pombal, &c. (Paris, 1869) B. Duhr (S.J.), Pombal, &c. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1891); C. J. de Menezes, Os Jesuitas e o marques de Pombal (Oporto, 1893). See also articles in the Revue des deux mondes for September 1870; the Revue bleue for September 1889, and the Revue historique for September 1895 and January 1896.

POMEGRANATE. The pomegranate (Punica Granatum) is of exceptional interest by reason of its structure, its history, and its utility. It forms a tree of small stature, or a bush, with opposite or alternate, shining, lance-shaped leaves, from the

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FIG. 1.-Pomegranate, Punica Granatum, flowering branch, dow 3, Same cut across, showing seeds. 4. Seed,

I, Flower cut lengthwise; the petals have been removed. 2, Fruit, about one-third natural seven roundish, crumpled, scarlet or crimson petals, and below them very numerous slender stamens. The pistil consists of two rows of carpels placed one above another, both rows embedded in, and partially inseparate from, the inner surface of the calyxtube. The styles are confluent into one slender column. The fruit, which usually attains the size of a large orange, consists

(After Eichler, from Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) FIG. 2.-Punica Granatum.

A, Floral diagram. B, Longitudinal section of the ovary. of a hard leathery rind, enclosing a quantity of pulp derived from the coats of the numerous seeds. This pulp, filled as it is with refreshing acid juice, constitutes the chief value of the tree. The more highly cultivated forms contain more of it than the wild or half-wild varieties. The great structural peculiarity consists in the presence of the two rows of carpels one above another (a state of things which occurs exceptionally in apples and oranges), and in the fact that, while in the lower series the seeds are attached to the inner border or lower angle of the cavity, they occupy the outer side in the upper series, as if during growth the upper whorl had become completely bent over.

By Bentham and Hooker the Punica is included as an anomalous genus in the order Lythraceae; others consider it more nearly allied to the myrtles; while its peculiarities are so great as, in the opinion of many botanists, to justify its inclusion in a

separate order, Punicaceae. Not only is the fruit valuable in
hot countries for the sake of its pulp, but the rind and the bark
and the outer part of the root (containing the alkaloid pelle-
tierine) are valuable as astringents. The bark of the root is
likewise valued as an anthelmintic in cases of tape-worm.

The tree is wild in Afghanistan, north-western India, and the
districts south and south-west of the Caspian, but it has been so
long cultivated that it is difficult to say whether it is really
native in Palestine and the Mediterranean region. It has been
cited as wild in northern Africa, but this appears to be a mistake.
Professor Bayley Balfour met with a wild species, heretofore un-
known, in the island of Socotra, the flowers of which have only
a single row of carpels, which suggests the inference that it may
have been the source of the cultivated varieties. But, on the other
hand, in Afghanistan, where Aitchison met with the tree truly
wild, a double row of carpels was present as usual. The antiquity
of the tree as a cultivated plant is evidenced by the Sanskrit
name Dăḍimba, and by the references to the fruit in the Old
Testament, and in the Odyssey, where it is spoken of as cultivated
in the gardens of the kings of Phacacia and Phrygia. The fruit
is frequently represented on ancient Assyrian and Egyptian
sculptures, and had a religious significance in connexion with
several Oriental cults, especially the Phrygian cult of Cybele
(Arnob. v. 5 seq.; see also Baudissin, Studien, ii. 207 seq.). It
was well known to the Greeks and Romans, who were acquainted
with its medicinal properties and its use as a tanning material.
The name given by the Romans, malum punicum, indicates that
they received it from Carthage, as indeed is expressly stated
by Pliny; and.this circumstance has given rise to the notion that
the tree was indigenous in northern Africa. On a review of the
whole evidence, botanical, literary and linguistic, Alphonse de
Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants) pronounces against its
African origin, and decides in favour. of its source in Persia and
the neighbouring countries. According to Saporta, the pomegra-
nate existed in a fossil state in beds of the Pliocene epoch near
Meximieux in Burgundy. The pomegranate is sometimes met
with in cultivation against a wall in England, but it is too tender
to withstand a severe winter. The double-flowered varieties
are specially desirable for the beauty and long duration of their
flowers.

POMERANIA (German, Pommern), a territory of Germany and a maritime province of Prussia, bounded on the N. by the Baltic, on the W. by Mecklenburg, on the S. by Brandenburg, and on the E. by West Prussia. Its area is 11,630 sq. m., and the population in 1905 was 1,684,125, showing a density of 145 inhabitants to the square mile. The province is officially divided into the three districts of Stralsund, Stettin and Köslin, but more historical interest attaches to the names of Vorpommern and Hinterpommern, or Hither and Farther Pomerania, the former being applied to the territory to the west, and the latter to that to the east of the Oder. Pomerania is one of the flattest parts of Germany, although cast of the Oder it is traversed by a range of low hills, and there are also a few isolated eminences to the west. Off the west coast, which is very irregular, lie the islands of Rügen, Usedom and Wollin; the coast of Farther Pomerania is smooth in outline and is bordered with dunes, or sandbanks. Besides the Oder and its affluents, the chief of which are the Peene, the Ucker and the Ihna, there are several smaller rivers flowing into the Baltic; a few of these are navigable for ships, but the greater number only carry rafts. Many of them end in small lakes, which are separated from the sea by narrow strips of land, through which the water escapes by one or more outlets. The interior of the province is also thickly sprinkled with lakes, the combined area of which is equal to about one-twentieth of the entire surface.

The soil of Pomerania is for the most part thin and sandy, but patches of good land are found here and there. About 55% of the whole is under tillage, while 16% consists of meadow and pasture and 21% is covered by forests. The principal crops are potatoes, rye and oats, but wheat and barley are grown in the more fertile districts; tobacco, flax, hops and beetroot are also cultivated. Agriculture is still carried on in a somewhat

47

primitive fashion, and as a rule the livestock is of an inferior quality, though the breed of horses, of a heavy build and mostly used in agriculture, is held in high esteem. Large flocks of sheep are kept, both for their flesh and their wool, and there are in the and goose feathers form lucrative articles of export. Owing province large numbers of horned cattle and of pigs, Geese important industry, and large quantities of herrings, eels and to the long line of coast and the numerous lakes, fishing forms an lampreys are sent from Pomerania to other parts of Germany. With the exception of the almost inexhaustible layers of peat, the mineral wealth of the province is insignificant. Its industrial activity is not great, but there are manufactures of machinery, chemicals, paper, tobacco and sugar; these are made chiefly in or near the large towns, while linen-weaving is practised as a domestic industry. Ship-building is carried on at Stettin and at several places along the coast. The commerce of Pomerania is in a flourishing condition, its principal ports being Stettin, Stralsund and Swinemünde. Education is provided for by a university at Greifswald and by numerous schools. The province sends 14 members to the German Reichstag, and 26 to the Prussian house of representatives. The heir to the Prussian crown bears the title of governor of Pomerania.

seems to have been occupied by Celts, who afterwards made way History. In prehistoric times the southern coast of the Baltic for tribes of Teutonic stock. These in their turn migrated to century of our era, by Slavonic tribes, the Wilzi and the Pomerani. other settlements and were replaced, about the end of the 5th The name of Pomore, or Pommern, meaning given to the district by the latter of the tribes about the time of Charlemagne, and it has often changed its political and geo" on the sea," was graphical significance. Originally it seems to have denoted the coast district between the Oder and the Vistula, a territory which was at first more or less dependent on Poland, but which, towards the end of the 12th century, was ruled by two native princes, who took the title of duke about 1170 and admitted the authority of the German king in 1181. Afterwards Pomerania extended much farther to the west, while being correspondingly curtailed on the east, and a distinction was made between Slavinia, or modern Pomerania, and Pomerellen. The latter, Prussia, remained subject to Poland until 1309, when it was corresponding substantially to the present province of West divided between Brandenburg and the Teutonic Order. Christianity was introduced in the 12th century, a bishopric being founded in the Island of Wollin, and its advance went rapidly hand in hand with the Germanizing of the district.

The history of Pomerania, as distinct from that of Pomerellen, territory among the different lines of the ducal house, and of consists mainly of an almost endless succession of divisions of numerous expansions and contractions of territory through constant hostilities with the elector of Brandenburg, who claimed to be the immediate feudal superior of Pomerania, and with other neighbouring rulers. The names of VorpomPomerania proper, or Slavinia and Pomerellen, but towards mern and Hinterpommern were at first synonymous with the close of the 14th century they were transferred to the two duchies into which the former was divided. In 1625 the whole of Pomerania became united under the sway of Duke Bogislaus XIV., and on his death without issue, in 1637, Brandenburg claimed the duchy by virtue of a compact made in 1571. In the meantime, however, Pomerania had been devastated by the Thirty Years' War and occupied by the Swedes, who had taken possession of its towns and fortresses. At the peace of Westphalia they claimed the duchy, in opposition to the elector of Brandenburg, and the result was that the latter was obliged to to see the western part (Vorpommern) awarded to Sweden. In content himself with eastern Pomerania (Hinterpommern), and 1720, by the peace of Stockholm, Swedish Pomerania was curtailed by extensive concessions to Prussia, but the district to the general European settlement of 1815. Then Sweden assigned west of the Peene remained in the possession of Sweden until the her German possessions to Denmark in exchange for Norway, whereupon Prussia, partly by purchase and partly by the cession

of the duchy of Lauenburg, finally succeeded in uniting the whole of Pomerania under her rule.

For the history, see J. Bugenhagen, Pomerania, edited by O. Heinemann (Stettin, 1900); von Bohlen, Die Erwerbung Pommerns durch die Hohenzollern (Berlin, 1865); H. Berghaus, Landbuch des Herzogtums Pommern (Berlin, 1865-1876); the Codex Pomeraniae diplomaticus, edited by K. F. W. Hasselbach and J. G. L. Kosegarten (Greifswald, 1862); the Pommersches Urkundenbuch, edited by R. Klempin and others (Stettin, 1868-1896); W. von Sommerfeld, Geschichte der Germanisierung des Herzogtums Pommern (Leipzig, 1896); F. W. Barthold, Geschichte von Rugen und Pommern (Hamburg, 1839-1845); K. Mass, Pommersche Geschichte (Stettin, 1899); M. Wehrmann, Geschichte von Pommern (Gotha, 1904-1906); and Uecker, Pommern in Wort und Bild (Stettin, 1904). See also the publications of the Gesellschaft für pommersche Geschichte und Altertumskunde.

POMEROY, a village and the county-seat of Meigs county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 85 m. S.S.E. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 4726; (1900) 4639, including 453 foreign-born and 280 negroes; (1910) 4023. Pomeroy is served by the Hocking Valley and (across the river) Baltimore & Ohio railways, by inter-urban electric railway, and by passenger and freight boats to the leading river ports. It occupies a strip of ground between the river and a range of steep hills. Bituminous coal and salt abound in the district, and there are deposits of building stone, fireclay and glass sand. The first settlement here was established in 1816, coal mining was begun three years later, and in 1827 a town was laid out and named Nyesville. There was little progress, however, until 1833, when Samuel W. Pomeroy (in whose honour the present name was adopted) formed a company, which began mining coal on a large scale. Pomeroy was incorporated as a village and was made the county-seat in 1841. In 1850 the first of several salt wells, from 1000 to 1200 ft. in depth, was operated.

POMFRET, JOHN (1667-1702), English poet, son of Thomas Pomfret, vicar of Luton, was born in 1667. He was educated at Bedford grammar school and at Queens' College, Cambridge. He became rector of Maulden, Bedfordshire, in 1695, and of Millbrook in the same county in 1702. Dr Johnson says that the bishop of London refused to sanction preferment for him because in his Choice he declared that he would have no wife, although he expressed a wish for the occasional company of a modest and sprightly young lady. The poet was married in real life all the same, and-while waiting to clear up the misunderstanding with the bishop-he died in November 1702. The Choice or Wish: A Poem written by a Person of Quality (1700) expresses the epicurean desires of a cultivated man of Pomfret's time. It is smoothly written in the heroic couplet, and was widely popular. His Miscellany Poems were published in 1702.

POMMEL (through O. Fr. pomel, from a diminutive pomellus of Lat. pomum, fruit, apple), any rounded object resembling an apple, e.g. the rounded termination of a saddle-bow; in architecture, any round knob, as a boss, finial, &c.; more particularly the rounded end to the hilt of a sword, dagger or other hand weapon, used to prevent the hand from slipping, and as a balance to the blade. "Pommel" is also a term used of a piece of grooved wood used in graining leather. This word may be the same in origin, or more probably from Fr. paumelle, from paume, the hand, palm.

| from F below 8 ft. C to E or F in the bass stave, two octaves in all. The other members of the family were the bass Pommer, from 8 ft. C to middle C, corresponding to the modern bassoon or fagotto; the tenor or basset Pommer, a fifth higher in pitch; the alto pommer or nicolo, a fourth or a fifth above the tenor; and the high alto, or Klein Alt Pommer, an octave higher than the tenor, corresponding approximately to the cor-anglais. For the history of the Pommer family see OBOE and BASSOON. (K. S.)

POMONA, an old Italian goddess of fruit and gardens. Ovid (Met. xiv. 623) tells the story of her courtship by the silvan deities and how Vertumnus, god of the turning year, wooed and won her. Corresponding to Pomona there seems to have been a male Italian deity, called Pomunus, who was perhaps identical with Vertumnus. Although chiefly worshipped in the country, Pomona had a special priest at Rome, the flamen Pomonalis, and a sacred grove near Ostia, called the Pomonal. She was represented as a beautiful maiden, with fruits in her bosom and a pruning-knife in her hand.

POMONA, a city of Los Angeles county, in southern Californía, U.S.A., about 33 m. E. of the city of Los Angeles. Pop. (1890) 3634; (1900) 5526 (567 foreign-born); (1910) 10,207. It is served by the Southern Pacific, the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake, and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railways, and by an inter-urban electric line. The city is about 850 ft. above sea-level, and has a Carnegie library and several parks, including Ganesha park (45 acres), which commands a fine view. At Claremont, about 3 m. north, is Pomona College (1888, coeducational), which in 1908 had 34 instructors and 488 students. Pomona is in the midst of a prosperous fruit region, devoted especially to the growing of oranges. Orchards of oranges, lemons, apricots, peaches and prunes surround the city for miles, and some olives are grown; alfalfa and sugar-beets are raised in large quantities in the immediate neighbourhood. Pomona was settled by a colony of fruit-growers in 1875, and was chartered as a city in 1888.

POMONA, or MAINLAND, the central and largest island of the Orkneys, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 16,235. It is 25 m. long from N.W. to S.E. and 15 m. broad from E. to W.; area, 100 sq. m.; but where the coast is cut into, on the N. by Kirkwall Bay and on the S. by Scapa Flow, the land is less than 2 m. across. Consequently, the portion of the island to the west of the waist of Pomona is sometimes described as the West Island, and the portion to the East as the East Island. The west coast is almost unbroken, the bays of Birsay and Skaill being the only bays of any importance. The east and south shores, on the other hand, are extensively carved out. Thus on the east side are found Eynhallow Sound, Wood Wick, the bays of Isbister, Firth, Kirkwall, and Inganess and Dee Sound, and on the south Holm Sound, Scapa Bay, Swanbister Bay and Bay of Ireland. The highest points of the watershed from Costa Head to the Scapa shore are Milldoe (734 ft.) to the north-east of Isbister and Wideford Hill (740 ft.) to the west of Kirkwall. There are also a few eminences towards the south-west, Ward Hill (880 ft.) in the parish of Orphir being the highest peak in the island. There are numerous lakes, some of considerable size and most of them abounding with trout. Loch Harray is

34 m. long by from to 24 m. wide. Lochs Swannay, Boardhouse and Hundland are situated in the extreme north, while Loch Kirbister lies near the south coast and Loch Tankerness adjoins Deer Sound. Off the cast coast lie the islands of Rousay, Egilshay, Viera, Eynhallow, Gairsay and Shapinshay, and off the south Copinshay and Lamb Holm. The hilly country is mostly moorland, and peat-mosses are met with in some of the low-lying land, but many of the valleys contain fertile soil, and there are productive tracts on the eastern and northern seaboard. Kirkwall, the capital of the Orkneys, and Stromness are the only towns.

POMMER, or BOMBARD (Fr. hautbois; Ital. bombardo, bombar-4 m. long by fromm. to about 2 m. wide, and Loch Stenness done), the alto, tenor and basses of the shawm or Schalmey family, and the forerunners respectively of the cor-anglais, bassoon or fagotto, and double bassoon or contrafagotto. The main difference to the casual observer between the medieval instruments and those of our orchestra which were evolved from them would be one of size. In the Pommers no attempt had been made to bend the tube, and its length, equal to that of an open organ pipe of the same pitch, was outstretched in all its unwieldiness in an oblique position in front of the performer. The great contrabass Pommer was 9 ft. long without the crook and reed, which, however, were bent downwards. It had five open fingerholes and five keys working inside a perforated case; in order to bring the holes within reach of the finger, they were cut obliquely through the tube. The compass extended

In Harray, the only parish in the Orkneys not trenched at some point by the sea, Norse customs have survived longer than elsewhere in the group save in North Ronaldshay. In Deerness

the most easterly parish in Pomona, were buried 200 Covenanters; taken prisoners at the battle of Bothwell Brig. They were carried to Barbados, to be sold as slaves for the plantations, when the ship foundered in Deer Sound, and all were drowned. In Sandside Bay, in the same parish, the fleet of Malcolm Canmore was defeated by that of Jarl Thorfinn; and at Summersdale, towards the northern base of the hills of Orphir, Sir James Sinclair, governor of Kirkwall, vanquished Lord Sinclair and 500 Caithness men in 1529.

The antiquities of Pomona are of great interest. The examples of Pictish remains include brochs or round towers, chambered mounds, or buildings of stone covered in with earth, and weems, or underground dwellings afterwards roofed in. At Saverock, on the west wing of Kirkwall Bay, a good specimen of an earthhouse will be found, and at Quanterness, I m. to the west of it, a chambered mound, containing seven rooms with beehive roofs. Farther west and 5 m. by road north-east of Stromness, and within a mile of the stone circles of Stenness, stands the great barrow or chambered mound of Maeshowe. The tumulus has the form of a blunted cone, is 36 ft. high, 300 ft. in circumference and 92 ft. in diameter, and at a distance of 90 ft. from its base is encircled by a moat 40 ft. wide and from 4 ft. to 8 ft. deep. The ground-plan shows that it was entered from the west by a passage, 54 ft. long, from 2 ft. to 3 ft. wide and from 24 ft. to 4 ft. high, which led to a central apartment about 15 ft. square, the walls of which ended in a beehive roof, the spring of which began at a height of 13 ft. from the floor. This room and the passage are built of undressed blocks and slabs of sandstone. About the middle of each side of the chamber, at a height of 3 ft. from the floor, there is an entrance to a small cell, 3 ft. high, 4 ft. wide and from 5 ft. to 7 ft. long. Mr James Farrer explored the mound in 1861, and discovered on the walls and certain stones rude drawings of crosses, a winged dragon, and a serpent curled round a pole, besides a variety of Runic inscriptions. One of these inscriptions stated that the tumulus had been rifled by Norse pilgrims (possibly crusaders) on their way to Jerusalem under Jarl Rognvald in the 12th century. There can be little doubt but that it was a sepulchral chamber. Joseph Anderson ascribes it to the Stone Age (that is, to the Picts), and James Fergusson to Norsemen of the roth century.

The most interesting of all those links with a remote past are the stone circles forming the Ring of Brogar and the Ring of Stenness, often inaccurately described as the Stones of Stenness. The Ring of Brogar is situated to the north-west and the Ring of Stenness to the south-east of the Bridge of Brogar, as the narrow causeway of stone slabs is called which separates Loch Harray from Loch Stenness. The district lies some 41 m. north-east of Stromness. The Ring of Brogar, once known as the Temple of the Sun, stands on a raised circular platform of turf, 340 ft. in diameter, surrounded by a moat about 6 ft. deep, which in turn is invested by a grassy rampart. The ring originally comprised 60 stones, set up at intervals of 17 ft. Only 13 are now erect. Ten, still entire, lie prostrate, while the stumps of 13 others can yet be recognized. The height of the stones varies from 9 ft. to 14 ft. The Ring of Stenness-the Temple of the Moon of local tradition-is of similar construction to the larger circle, except that its round platform is only 104 ft. in diameter. The stones are believed to have numbered 12, varying in height from 15 ft. to 17 ft. but only two remain upright. In the middle of the ring may be seen the relic of what was probably the sacrificial altar. The Stone of Odin, the great monolith, pierced by a hole at a height of 5 ft. from the ground, which figures so prominently in Scott's Pirate, stood 150 yds. to the north of the Ring of Stenness. The stones of both rings are of the native Old Red Sandstone.

POMPADOUR, JEANNE ANTOINETTE POISSON LE NORMANT D'ÉTIOLES, MARQUISE DE (1721-1764), mistress of Louis XV., was born in Paris on the 29th of December 1721, and baptized as the legitimate daughter of François Poisson, an officer in the household of the duke of Orleans, and his wife, Madeleine de la Motte, in the church of St Eustache; but she XXII 2

was suspected, as well as her brother, afterwards marquis of Marigny, to be the child of a very wealthy financier and farmergeneral of the revenues, Le Normant de Tournehem. He at any rate took upon himself the charge of her education; and, as from the beauty and wit she showed from childhood she seemed to be born for some uncommon destiny, he declared her "un morceau de roi," and specially educated her to be a king's mistress. This idea was confirmed in her childish mind by the prophecy of an old woman, whom in after days she pensioned for the correctness of her prediction. In 1741 she was married to a nephew of her protector and guardian, Le Normant d'Etioles, who was passionately in love with her, and she soon became a queen of fashion. Yet the world of the financiers at Paris was far apart from the court world, where she wished to reign; she could get no introduction at court, and could only try to catch the king's eye when he went out hunting. But Louis XV. was then under the influence of Mme de Mailly, who carefully prevented any further intimacy with "la petite Etioles," and it was not until after her death that the king met the fair queen of the financial world of Paris at a ball given by the city to the dauphin in 1744, and he was immediately subjugated. She at once gave up her husband, and in 1745 was established at Versailles as "maîtresse en titre." Louis XV. bought her the estate of Pompadour, from which she took her title of marquise (raised in 1752 to that of duchess). She was hardly established firmly in power before she showed that ambition rather than love had guided her, and began to mix in politics. Knowing that the French people of that time were ruled by the literary kings of the time, she paid court to them, and tried to play the part of a Maecenas. Voltaire was her poet in chief, and the founder of the physiocrats, Quesnay, was her physician. In the arts she was even more successful; she was herself no mean etcher and engraver, and she encouraged and protected Vanloo, Boucher, Vien, Greuze, and the engraver Jacques Guay. Yet this policy did not prevent her from being lampooned, and the famous poissardes against her contributed to the ruin of many wits suspected of being among the authors, and notably of the Comte de Maurepas. The command of the political situation passed entirely into her hands; she it was who brought Belle-Isle into office with his vigorous policy; she corresponded regularly with the generals of the armies in the field, as her letters to the Comte de Clermont prove; and she introduced the Abbé de Bernis into the ministry in order to effect a very great alteration of French politics in 1756. The continuous policy of France since the days of Richelieu had been to weaken the house of Austria by alliances in Germany; but Mme de Pompadour changed this hereditary policy because Frederick the Great wrote scandalous verses on her; and because Maria Theresa wrote her a friendly letter she entered into an alliance with Austria. This alliance brought on the Seven Years' War, with all its disasters, the battle of Rosbach and the loss of Canada; but Mme de Pompadour persisted in her policy, and, when Bernis failed her, brought Choiseul into office and supported him in all his great plans, the Pacte de Famille, the suppression of the Jesuits, and the peace of Versailles. But it was to internal politics that this remarkable woman paid most attention; no one obtained office except through her; in imitation of Mme de Maintenon, she prepared all business for the king's eye with the ministers, and contrived that they should meet in her room; and she daily examined the letters sent through the post office with Janelle, the director of the post office. By this continuous labour she made herself indispensable to Louis. Yet, when after a year or two she had lost the heart of her lover, she had a difficult task before her; to maintain her influence she had not only to save the king as much trouble as possible, but to find him fresh pleasures. When he first began to weary of her she remembered her talent for acting and her private theatricals at Etioles, and established the théâtre des petits cabinets," in which she acted with the greatest lords about the court for the king's pleasure in tragedies and comedies, operas and ballets. By this means and the "concerts spirituels " she kept in favour for a time; but at last she found a

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