negative by the lithographic press was introduced and patented | Electrotypes. The very large number of impressions it is often required to get from the etched surface of a block has made it necessary to devise means for preserving the original block, and to prepare and work from duplicates, which can be renewed when necessary. For this process the original is coated with a film of the finest plumbago (black lead) powder before being placed face to face with a bed of soft fine wax, into which it is pressed. The plumbago prevents adhesion and facilitates the with; drawal of the block after contact with the wax. The wax mould which is thus obtained is suspended in a galvanic bath of sulphate of copper. On passing a current of electricity through the liquid to the mould, the copper at once begins to deposit itself in metallic form over the face of the wax mould, and in a short time the deposit becomes thick enough, either by itself or when backed up with other metal, to be used as a block in the place of the original. The very fine nature of process blocks, and the necessity of obtain ing perfect impressions from them, has led to the introduction of gutta-percha instead of wax as the medium for making a mould. It is melted and poured in a liquid state upon the block, and when cold can be removed without the risk attending the use of wax, which is apt to give way in the course of the separation of the block from the mould. Gutta-percha is much more tenacious, and being somewhat flexible, does not break and tear, as wax is liable to do. The whole process requires the greatest care in its manipulation. Steel-facing is resorted to where long numbers have to be printed from photogravure plates. The finest film of steel is deposited by an electric battery over the whole face of the plate, Steelwhich it hardens and protects. This steel face in time facing. begins to wear, through the constant pressure and rubbing incidental to the process of printing, and the copper begins to show through it. As soon as this happens the plate is placed in an acid bath, in which the steel film disappears. The plate itself being still intact, can be re-steeled for further work. Most elaborate methods were adopted for the moistening of the damp, but damp paper had to disappear with the soft blanket, substance of paper before use. Most paper was printed on whilst and a clay-surfaced or highly-calendered paper was introduced with a glazed face in harmony with the polished steel cylinder which pressed it against the type and blocks. It is essential to this paper that it be dry when used; to ensure the best results with it the paper should be kept some weeks or months before use, so that it may be absolutely dry, or seasoned. If printed on too soon, the clay surface tears away when in contact with the tacky ink; and instead of the ink being deposited on the paper, bits of the paper surface are left on the forme, and white spots appear in the impression. The bits under the rollers, and impress black spots on the sheets that come of paper surface so deposited on the forme get inked as they pass after. New and unseasoned paper accounts for much bad printing, and this form of badness is due to the change in material due to the necessities of modern process work. 3. Planographic processes are such as are printed from a flat surface neither raised above the surrounding ground like a wood engraving or type letter, nor sunk below the ground like an etching or steel engraving. Lithography (q.v.) with its flat stone or plate may be taken as the type. Woodbury type is a development rather than an invention by Walter Woodbury. By an old nature-printing process leaves and other things which lent themselves to the treatment were by extreme pressure forced into a flat surface of soft metal, and the mould so formed was used as a printing surface to reproduce the forms of the impressed object. Woodbury found that a film of bichromated gelatin exposed to the action of light under a negative and the unaffected parts washed away gave him a relief image which was so hardened by the action of light aided by other hardening agents, that it could with no injury to the film itself-which could be used many times to make fresh moulds -be forced by hydraulic pressure into a thin flat plate of lead or type metal, and that the mould so formed could be used in a similar way to the mould formed in the old nature printing process. But a Woodbury type print is rather a cast from the shallow mould than a print in the true sense. It is obtained by filling the mould with a warm solution of coloured gelatin and pressing on it a piece of hard surfaced paper. The pressure forces the solution away from the highest parts of this mould which come in actual contact with the paper, so that none of it is left between them and the surface of the paper which in these parts remains uncoloured. These are the high lights of the print. The pressure forces the colouring matter into the hollows of the mould, and this amount is graduated according to the depth of the hollows. The coloured gelatin gradually cools and hardens and adheres to the paper which on its removal from the mould retains a delicate cast of the impressed subject. The variety of light and shade is the result of the varying depth of the hollows and the consequent variation of the amount of colouring matter taken up by the impressed paper. The white paper is an important element in the result, the light reflected from it through this coloured gelatin varying according to the thickness of the gelatin film. A drawback to the use of the Woodbury type for book illustration is that every print has to be trimmed and mounted, and of course it cannot be printed with type. Stannotype is a variation upon Woodbury type. It is an attempt to do away with the Deed of the hydraulic press for the making of the mould. A film of bichromated gelatin is exposed to the action of light under a positive instead of a negative and the unaffected parts washed away, by which means a mould is obtained corresponding exactly to that obtained in metal by pressure from a film exposed to light under a negative. This mould was covered by a coating of tin foil to give it the necessary metal surface, and good results were obtained from it, but for some reason it has never come much into use. The changes which have taken place in the form of illustrations have necessarily been accompanied by changes in the machinery by which they are printed. Almost all the changes Changes in and improvements have been initiated in the United Machinery. States of America. The vital change made in the interest of process block-printing is what is technically known as "hard packing." Before the introduction of process blocks the "blanket played an important part in all printing machines. It was a soft woollen sheet, which came between the plate or cylinder and the type and blocks, and modified the force of the contact between them. Owing to the increased fineness of the texture of the process block as compared with the wood engraving, it was found that the blanket was too coarse and soft a material, and that it interfered with the clearness and fineness of the printed result. Blankets of finer material were tried, with improved results; but at last the blanket was entirely superseded by a glazed board, the machinery was more accurately constructed, and the hard, finely-polished, steel cylinder, without any intervening substance save the thin glazed board and the sheet of paper to be printed, was brought in contact with the type and blocks. The old soft blanket kept the cylinder or the flat press in contact with the type, in spite of the weak congelatin or gum, treated with bichromate of potash with the addistruction of much printing machinery. The new method of work made no allowance for such construction; and the new machinery, to meet the new conditions, had to be very perfect in manufacture. About the old machines there was a lack of solidity, which allowed vibration. Modern work demands absolute rigidity in the machine: and a chief characteristic of the best modern printing machinery is strength and solidity, admitting of precision of impression. Another change has been in the nature and treatment of the printing paper. Collotype or phototype is a process in which the film of isínglass, tion of alum or some other hardening substance, becomes an actual printing surface inked with an ordinary roller and printed by an ordinary machine. A strong tough film made up of a first coating of a simple gelatinous nature covered by a second film of the sensitive bichromated gelatin is spread upon glass and allowed to dry. Exposed to light under a reversed negative the unprotected parts are hardened in proportion to the amount | Courcy Scott, On Photo-Zincography and other Photographic Processes of protection they receive from the negative. After exposure under the negative the back of the film is exposed to the action of sunlight through the glass at its back, so that the whole film may be rendered as hard and tough and durable as possible to stand the wear and tear of the process of printing. When in its place in the printing press the film must be kept moistened. The soft parts unacted upon by the light, but from which the bichromate has been since washed, will absorb moisture in proportion to the action the light has exercised upon it, the absolutely hard parts refusing moisture altogether. The film may now be inked with an ordinary inking roller, the ink being freely taken up by the hard and unmoistened passages and by the partly hardened in proportion to the amount of moisture they are capable of absorbing; as in lithography, the constant moistening of the printing surface is a necessity. Collotype is largely used for postcards. It may be printed in a lithographic or ordinary vertical press of the letterpress printer. Admirable colour results are obtained by this process. Heliotype is a variation of the method of producing the film which is first spread as described upon waxed glass and then stripped from the glass when dry. After hardening the back of the film it is laid down upon a metal plate and firmly secured to it by the use of an india-rubber cement. It is remarkable the admirable results that are obtainable by so delicate a process. The films have not a long life; a few hundreds only can be printed from each, but the renewal of the film is a simple matter. The result is very like a photograph. The use of heliotype is, however, practically obsolete. Photolithography.-Zinc or aluminium plates are now frequently used instead of the more cumbrous stones for all so called lithographic printing. These plates have the same affinity for fat ink as stone, the method of dealing with them being practically the same as with stones, and the description may be taken as applying to both. The stone itself may be rendered sensitive by coating it with a thin film of bichromated gelatin, exposing it under a reversed negative of the required subject and treating the hardened film as it is treated in the case of collotype. A better plan is to render sensitive a sheet of unsized or transfer paper which is exposed under a negative, moistened, and rolled with transfer ink, which is of a specially fatty nature, and adheres only to the parts hardened by exposure which are unaffected by the moistening and remain dry. This inked sheet is laid upon the stone and the two together are subjected to great pressure, passing through a lithographic press. After further moistening the sheet of transfer paper is peeled off, the stone leaving the inked drawing behind it. The usual methods of lithography are then followed, the stone is treated with a preparation of acid and gum, kept moist and printed from in the ordinary lithographic method. Lithography of all kinds can only deal with lines or solid blocks. Tints present difficulties which are best dealt with by other methods of reproduction, but attempts have been made to obtain tints lithographically by breaking up the solid surfaces of the gelatin print with a grain before rolling it with ink and transferring it to the stone. One of the most successful of such attempts is known as the Ink Photo process, which is more or less of a secret process worked by Messrs. Sprague. None of them, however, yield so sound a result as a good drawing made in line, as the grain has a tendency to fill up. Transfers may also be made on to zinc plates which will take the lithographic ink equally well with stones. The plates may be etched-as the inked surfaces resist the action of acid-and by this means a relief plate made, which when mounted on a block, type-high, may be printed typographically It is known in this form as zincography. AUTHORITIES.-Eugène Michel Chevreul, Considérations sur la reproduction par les procédés de M. Niepce de Saint Victor des images gravées dessinées ou imprimées (Paris, 1847); Niepce de Saint Victor, Mémoire sur la gravure héliographique sur acier et sur verre (Batig nelles, 1854); Niepce de Saint Victor, Traité pratique de la gravure heliographique sur acier et sur verre (Paris, 1856); Alexander de employed at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton (London, 1862); PROCESS, in law, in the widest sense of the word, any means process In Stet processus was a technical term used in old common law practice. It consisted of an entry on the record by consent of the parties for a stay of proceedings. Since the Judicature Acts there has been no record, and the stet processus has disappeared with it. In Scots law process is used in a much wider sense, almost equivalent to practice or procedure in English law. Where papers forming steps of a process are borrowed and not returned, the return of the borrowed process may be enforced by caption (attachment). The Scottish process is very much akin to the French dossier. In the United States process is governed by numerous statutes, both of Congress and of the state legislatures. The law is founded upon the English common law. PROCESSION' (M. Eng., processioun, Fr., procession, Lat., processio, from procedere, to go forth, advance, proceed), in general, an organized body of people advancing in a formal or ceremonial manner. This definition covers a wide variety of such progresses: the medieval pageants, of which the Lord In classical Latin the word generally used for a procession was pompa, a formal march or progress of persons to some particular spot, to celebrate some event, or for some public or religious purpose. Processio is used by Cicero in the sense of a marching forward, an advance," any public progress, such as the formal entrance of the consul upon his office (Du Cange, s.v. Processio), or the public appearance of the emperor. In Late Latin processio is generally used of a religious procession, the word having come to be used of the body of persons advancing or proceeding. Mayor's show in London is the most conspicuous survival; the | is quite probable that the faithful proceeded to the appointed processions connected with royal coronations and with court ceremonies generally; the processions of friendly societies, so popular in Great Britain and America; processions organized as a demonstration of political or other opinions; processions forming part of the ceremonies of public worship. In a narrower sense of "going forth, proceeding," the term is used in the technical language of theology in the phrase "Procession of the Holy Ghost," expressing the relation of the Third Person in the Triune Godhead to the Father and the Son. Processions have in all peoples and at all times been a natural form of public celebration, as forming an orderly and impressive Greek and way in which a number of persons can take part in Roman Pro- some ceremony. They are included in the celebracessions. tions of many religions, and in many countries, both in the East and West, they accompany such events as weddings and funerals. Religious and triumphal processions are abundantly illustrated by ancient monuments, e.g. the religious processions of Egypt, those illustrated by the rock-carvings of Boghaz-Keui (see PTERIA), the many representations of processions in Greek art, culminating in the great Panathenaic procession of the Parthenon fricze, and Roman triumphal reliefs, such as those of the arch of Titus. spot in some kind of procession, though there is no satisfactory For the processions that formed part of the ritual of the eucharist, those of the introit, the gospel and the oblation, the earliest records date from the 6th century and even later (see Duchesne, Origines, 2nd ed., pp. 77, 154, 181; 78, 194), but they evidently were established at a much earlier date. As to public processions, these seem to have come into rapid vogue after the recognition of Christianity as the religion of the empire. Those at Jerusalem would seem to have been long established when described by the authoress of the Peregrinatio Silvice towards the end of the 4th century (see PALM SUNDAY, for the procession of palms). Very early were the processions accompanied by hymns and prayers, known as litaniae (Gr. Miraveîa, from Arh, prayer), rogationes or supplicationes (see LITANY). It is to such a procession that reference appears to be tales or Rogations. made in a letter of St Basil (c. 375), which would thus be the first recorded mention of a public Christian procession. The first mention for the Western Church occurs in St Ambrose (c. 388, Ep. 40 § 16, Ad Theodos. " monachos... qui Processions played a prominent part in the great festivals of Greece, where they were always religious in character. The games were either opened or accompanied by more or less elaborate processions and sacrifices, while processions from the earliest times formed part of the worship of the old nature gods (e.g. those connected with the cult of Dionysus, &c.), and later formed an essential part of the celebration of the great religious festivals (e.g. the processions of the Thesmophoria, and that of the Great Dionysia), and of the mysteries (e.g. the great procession from Athens to Eleusis, in connexion with the Eleusinia). Of the Roman processions, the most prominent was that of the Triumph, which had its origin in the return of the victorious army headed by the general, who proceeded in great pomp from psalmos canentes ex consuetudine usuque veteri pergebant the Campus to the Capitol to offer sacrifice, accompanied by ad celebritatem Machabaeorum martyrum "). In both these the army, captives, spoils, the chief magistrate, priests bearing cases the litanies are stated to have been long in use. There is the images of the gods, amidst strewing of flowers, burning of also mention of a procession accompanied by hymns, organized incense and the like (Ovid, Trist. iv. 2, 3 and 6). Connected at Constantinople by St John Chrysostom (c. 390-400) in oppowith the triumph was the pompa circensis, or solemn procession sition to a procession of Arians, in Sozomen, Hist. eccl. viii. 8.3 which preceded the games in the circus; it first came into use at In times of calamity litanies were held, in which the people the ludi romani, when the games were preceded by a great pro- walked in robes of penitence, fasting, barefooted, and, in later cession from the Capitol to the Circus. The praetor or consul who] times, frequently dressed in black (litaniae nigrae). The cross appeared in the pompa circensis wore the robes of a triumphing was carried at the head of the procession and often the gospel general (see Mommsen, Staatsrecht I. 397 for the connexion of and the relics of the saint were carried. Gregory of Tours gives the triumph with the ludi). Thus, when it became customary numerous instances of such litanies in time of calamity; thus he for the consul to celebrate games at the opening of the consular describes (Vita S. Remig. I.) a procession of the clergy and year, he came, under the empire, to appear in triumphal robes people round the city, in which relics of St Remigius were carried in the processus consularis, or procession of the consul to the and litanies chanted in order to avert the plague. So, too, Capitol to sacrifice to Jupiter. After the establishment of Gregory the Great (Ep. xi. 57) writes to the Sicilian bishops to Christianity, the consular processions in Constantinople retained hold processions in order to prevent a threatened invasion of their religious character, now proceeding to St Sophia, where Sicily. A famous instance of these penitential litanies is the prayers and offerings were made; but in Rome, where Christ-litania septiformis ordered by Gregory the Great in the year 590, ianity was not so widely spread among the upper classes, the when Rome had been inundated and pestilence had followed. tendency was to convert the procession into a purely civil function, omitting the pagan rites and prayers, without substitu1 See De praeser adv. haer. C. xliii., "Ubi metus in Deum, ibi ting Christian ones (Dahremberg and Saglio, s.v. "Consul "); processio modesta, et Ecclesia unita et Dei omnia," where it would gravitas honesta...et subjectio religiosa, et apparitio devota, et Besides these public processions, there were others connected seem to mean "a modest bearing in public;" also De cultu foem. with the primitive worship of the country people, which remained ii., xi., "Vobis autem nulla procedendi caussa tetrica; aut imunchanged, and were later to influence the worship of the Christ- becillus aliquis ex fratribus visitandus, aut sacrificium offertur, ian Church. Such were those of the Ambarvalia, Robigalia, used only of going to church. The passage ad uxorem, ii. 4. aut Dei verbum administratur," which shows that procedere was not which &c., which were essentially rustic festivals, lustrations of the is sometimes quoted to prove the existence of processions at this fields, consisting in a procession round the spot to be purified, date, appears to use procedere in the same way as the above passages: leading the sacrificial victims with prayers, hymns and cere... si procedendum erit, nunquam magis familiae occupatio obveniat. Quis enim sinat conjugem suam visitandorum fratrum monies, in order to protect the young crops from evil influences. gratia vicatim aliena ac quidem pauperiora quaeque tuguria circuire? (See Preller, Röm. Mythologie, pp. 370-372.) quis denique solemnibus Paschae abnoctantem securus sus tinebit? As to the antiquity of processions as part of the ritual of the Christian Church, there is no absolute proof of their existence before the 4th century, but as we know that in the catacombs stations were held at the tombs of the martyrs on the anniversary of their death, for the celebration of the eucharist, it 2 Ep. 207 ad Neocaes: Αλλ' οὐκ ἦν, φησί, ταῦτα ἐπὶ τοῦ μεγάλου Γρηγορίου. Αλλ' οὐδὲ α! Λιτανείαι, ᾶς ὑμεῖς νῦν ἐπιδεύετε κ. τ. λ. 3 Brawls having arisen with the Catholics, who began singing their hymns in opposition, the emperor prohibited the Arian meetings In this litany seven processions, of clergy, laymen, monks, nuns, matrons, the poor, and children respectively, starting from seven different churches, proceeding to hear mass at Sta Maria Maggiore (see Greg. of Tours, Hist. Fr. x. 1, and Johann. Diac. Vita Greg. Magn. i. 42). This litany has often been confused with the litania major, introduced at Rome in 598 (vide supra), but is quite distinct from it.1 Funeral processions, accompanied with singing and the carrying of lighted tapers, were very early customary (see LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF), and akin to these, also very early, were the processions connected with the translation of the relics of martyrs from their original burying place to the church where they were to be enshrined (see e.g. St Ambrose, Ep. 29 and St Augustine, De civitate Dei, xxii. 8 and Conf. viii. 7, for the finding and translation of the relics of Saints Gervasius and Protasius). From the time of the emperor Constantine I. these processions were of great magnificence.2 Some liturgists maintain that the early Church in its processions followed Old Testament precedents, quoting such cases Origin of as the procession of the ark round the walls of Christian Jericho (Josh. vi.), the procession of David with the Processions. ark (2 Sam. vi.), the processions of thanksgiving on the return from captivity, &c. The liturgy of the early Church as Duchesne shows (Origines, ch. i.) was influenced by that of the Jewish synagogue, but the theory that the Church adopted the Old Testament ritual is of quite late growth. What is certain is that certain festivals involving processions were adopted by the Christian Church from the pagan calendar of Rome. Here we need only mention the litaniae majores et minores, which are stated by Usener ("Alte Bittgänge," in Zeller, Philosophische Aufsätze, p. 278 seq.) to have been first instituted by Pope Liberius (352–366). It is generally acknowledged that they are the equivalent of the Christian Church of the Roman lustrations of the crops in spring, the Ambarvalia, &c. The lilania major, or great procession on St Mark's day (April 25) is shown to coincide both in date and ritual with the Roman Robigalia, which took place a.d. vii. Kal. Mai., and consisted in a procession leaving Rome by the Flaminian gate, and proceeding by way of the Milvian bridge to a sanctuary at the 5th milestone of the Via Claudia, where the flamen quirinalis sacrificed a dog and a sheep to avert blight (robigo) from the crops (Fasti praenestini, C.T.L.T., p. 317). The litania major followed the same route as far as the Milvian bridge, when it turned off and returned to St Peter's, where mass was celebrated. This was already established as an annual festival by 598, as is shown by a document of Gregory the Great (Regist. ii.) which inculcates the duty of celebrating litaniam, quae major ab qmnibus appellatur. The litaniae minores or rogations, held on the three days preceding Ascension Day, were first introduced into Gaul by Bishop Mamertus of Vienne (c. 470), and made binding for all Gaul by the 1st Council of Orleans (511). The litaniae minores were also adopted for these three days in Rome by Leo III. (c. 800). A description of the institution and character of the Ascensiontide rogations is given by Sidonius Apollinaris (Ep. v. 14). "The solemnity of these," he says, was first established by Mamertus. Hitherto they had been erratic, lukewarm and poorly attended (vagae, tepentes, infrequentesque); those which he instituted were characterized by fasting, prayers, psalms and tears." In the Ambrosian rite the rogations take place after Ascensiontide, and in the Spanish on the Thursday to Saturday after Whitsuntide, and in November (Synod of Girona, 517). " Litanies, owing to the fact that they were sung in procession were in England sometimes themselves called processions. Thus we read in the "Order of making Knights of the Bath for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth": the parson of the said church knelynge said the procession in Englysche and all that were there answered the parson" (B. M. Add. MSS. 4712, p. 51, printed in Anstis's Observations, p. 53). See Martigny, Dict. des antiquités chr. s.o. "Processions," "Stations,' Translations" for details of processions under Constantine, and Du Cange, 3.0. Processio for various processions in the middle ages. in the modera Roman It is impossible to describe in detail the vast development of processions during the middle ages. The most Processions important and characteristic of these still have a place in the ritual of the Roman Catholic Church. The rules governing them are laid down in the Catholic Rituale Romanum (Tit. ix.), and they are classified Church. in the following way: (1) Processiones generales, in which the whole body of the clergy takes part. (2) Processiones ordinariae, on yearly festivals, such as the feast of the Purification of the Virgin (Candlemass, q.v.), the procession on Palm Sunday (q.v.), the Litaniae majores and minores, the feast of Corpus Christi (g.v.), and on other days, according to the custom of the churches. (3) Processiones extraordinariae, or processions ordered on special occasions, e.g. to pray for rain or fine weather, in time of storm, famine, plague, war, or, in quacunque tribulatione, processions of thanksgiving, translation of relics, the dedication of a church or cemetery. There are also processions of honour, for instance to meet a royal personage, or the bishop on his first entry into his diocese (Pontif. rom. iii.). permitting), two and two, in decent costume, and with reverent Those taking part in processions are to walk bare-headed (weather mien; clergy and laity, men and women, are to walk separately. The cross is carried at the head of the procession, and banners embroidered with sacred pictures in places where this is customary; is the colour prescribed for processions, except on the Feast of these banners must not be of military or triangular shape. Violet Corpus Christi, or on a day when some other colour is prescribed. The officiating priest wears a cope, or at least a surplice with a violet stole, the other priests and clergy wear surplices. Where the host is carried in procession it is covered always by a canopy, and accompanied by lights. At the litaniae majores and minores and other penitential processions, joyful hymns are not allowed, but the litanies are sung, and, if the length of the procession requires, the penitential and gradual psalms. to the Council of Trent (Sess. 25 de reg. cap. 6), appoints and regulates As to the discipline regarding processions the bishop, according processions and public prayers outside the churches. The observance or variation of the discipline belongs to the Congregation of Rites; in pontifical processions, which are regulated calium), these points are decided by the chief cardinal deacon. As by the masters of the ceremonies (magistri ceremoniarum pontifi to processions within the churches, some difference of opinion having arisen as to the regulating authority, the Congregation of Rites has decided that the bishop must ask, though not necessarily follow, the advice of the chapter in their regulation. Reformed Churches.-The Reformation abolished in all Protestant countries those processions associated with the doctrine of transubstantiation (Corpus Christi); "the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper," according to the 28th Article of Religion of the Church of England "was not by Christ's ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshipped." It also abolished those associated with the cult of the Blessed Virgin and the saints. The stern simplicity of Calvinism, indeed, would not tolerate religious processions of any kind, and from the Reformed " Churches they vanished altogether. The more conservative temper of the Anglican and Lutheran communions, however, suffered the retention of such processions as did not conflict with the reformed doctrines, though even in these Churches they met with opposition and tended after a while to fall into disuse. The Lutheran practice has varied at different times and in different countries. Thus, according to the Württemberg Kirchenordnung of 1553, a funeral procession was Lutheran prescribed, the bier being followed by the congregation singing hymns; the Brandenburg Kirchenordnung (1540) directed a cross-bearer to precede the procession and lighted candles to be carried, and this was prescribed also by the Waldeck Kirchenordnung of 1556. At present funeral processions survive in general only in the country districts; the processional cross or crucifix is still carried. In some provinces also the Lutheran Church has retained the ancient rogation processions in the week before Whitsuntide and, in some cases, in the month of May or on special occasions (e.g. days of humiliation, Busstage), processions about the fields to ask a blessing on the crops. On these occasions the ancient litanies are still used. Church. In England "the perambulations of the circuits of the parishes ... used heretofore in the days of rogations" were ordered to be observed by the Injunctions of Queen Elizabeth in 1559; and for these processions certain "psalms, prayers and homilies" Church of were prescribed. The Puritans, who aimed at setting up the Genevan model, objected; and the visitation articles of the bishops in Charles I.'s time make frequent inquisition England. into the neglect of the clergy to obey the law in this matter. With "the profane, ungodly, presumptuous multitude" (to quote Baxter's Saint's Rest, 1650, pp. 344, 345), however, these "processions and perambulations" appear to have been very popular, though "only the traditions of their fathers." However this may be, the Commonwealth made an end of them, and they seem never to have been revived; Sparrow, in his Rationale upon the Book of Common Prayer (London, 1668), speaks of "the service formerly appointed in the Rogation days of Procession." Among the processions that survived the Reformation in the English Church was that of the sovereign and the Knights of the Garter on St George's day. This was until Charles II.'s time a regular rogation, the choristers in surplices, the gentlemen of the royal chapel in copes, and the canons and other clergy in copes preceding the knights and singing the litany. In 1661, after the Restoration, by order of the sovereign and knights companions in chapter "that supplicational procession" was converted into a hymn of thanksgiving." Akin to this procession also are the others connected with royal functions; coronations, funerals. These retained, and retain, many preReformation features elsewhere fallen obsolete. Thus at the funeral of George II. (1760) the body was received at the door of the Abbey by the dean and prebendaries in their copes, attended by the choir, all carrying lighted tapers, who preceded it up the church, singing. The only procession formerly prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer is that in the order of the burial of the dead, where the rubric directs that "the priest and clerks meeting the corpse at the entrance of the churchyard, and going before it, either into the church, or towards the grave, shall say, or sing" certain verses of Scripture. Tapers seem to have been carried, not only at royal funerals, until well into the 18th century (see LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL). Processions, with singing of the litany or of hymns, appear also to have been always usual on such occasions as the consecration of churches and churchyards and the solemn reception of a visiting bishop. Under the influence of the Catholic revival, associated with the Oxford Tractarians, processions have become increasingly popular in the English Church, pre-Reformation usages having in some churches been revived without any legal sanction. The most common forms, however, are the processional litanies, and the solemn entry of clergy and choir into the church, which on festivals is accompanied by the singing of a processional hymn, their exit being similarly accompanied by the chanting of the Nunc Dimittis. In this connexion the use of the processional cross, banners and lights has been largely revived. See the article "Bittgänge," by M. Herold, in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie, iii. 248 (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1897); Wetzer und Welte, Kirchenlexikon, s.v. "Prozession, Bittgänge Litanei" and Smith's Dictionary of Christian Antiquities sv. "Procession." For the early ritual see Duchesne, Origines du culte chrétien (3rd ed., Paris, 1903). See also G. Catalani, Rituale romanum perpetuis commentariis exornatum (1760); N. Serarius, Sacri peripatetici de sacris ecclesiae catholicae processionibus (2 vols., Cologne, 1607); Jac. Gretser, De ecclesiae romanae processionibus (2 vols., Ingolstadt, 1606); Jac. Eveillon, De processionibus ecclesiae (Paris, 1641); Edw. Martène, De antiquis ecclesiae ritibus (3 vols., Antwerp, 1763), &c. For the past usage of the Church of England, Hierurgia anglicana, ed. Vernon Staley, p. ii pp. 3-22 (London, 1903). PROCESSION PATH (Lat. ambitus templi), the route taken by processions on solemn days in large churches-up the north aisle, round behind the high altar, down the south aisle, and then up the centre of the nave. PROCÈS-VERBAL (Fr. procès, process, Late Lat. verbalis, from verbum, word), in French law, a detailed authenticated account drawn up by a magistrate, police officer, or other person having authority of acts or proceedings done in the exercise of his duty. In a criminal charge, a procès-verbal is a statement of the facts of the case. The term is also sometimes applied to the written minutes of a meeting or assembly. PROCIDA (Gr. IIpoxún, Lat. Prockyla), an island off the coast of Campania, Italy, 2 m. S.W. of Capo Miseno, and 2 m. N.E. of Ischia on the west side of the Gulf of Naples, and about 12 m. S.W. of Naples. Pop. (1901), of the town, 2520; of the whole island, one commune, 14,440. It is about 2 m. in length and of varying width, and, reckoning in the adjacent island of Vivara, is made up of four extinct craters, parts of the margins of all of which have been destroyed by the sea. The highest point of it is only 250 ft. above sea-level. It is very fertile, and the population is engaged in the cultivation of vines and fruit and in fishing. Procida, the only town, lies on the east side; its castle is now a prison. It also contains a royal palace. Classical authors explained the name of Procida either as an allusion to its having been detached from Ischia, or as being that of the nurse of Aeneas. PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement), in English law, a formal announcement (royal proclamation), made under the great seal, of some matter which the king in council desires to make known to his subjects: e.g. the declaration of war, the statement of neutrality, the summoning or dissolution of parliament, or the bringing into operation of the provisions of some statute the enforcement of which the legislature has left to the discretion of the king in council. Royal proclamations of this character, made in furtherance of the executive power of the Crown, are binding on the subject, "where they do not either contradict the old laws or tend to establish new ones, but only confine the execution of such laws as are already in being in such manner as the sovereign shall judge necessary" (Blackstone's Commentaries, ed. Stephen, ii. 528; Stephen's Commentaries, 14th ed. 1903, ii. 506, 507; Dicey, Law of the Constitution, 6th ed., 51). Royal proclamations, which, although not made in pursuance of the executive powers of the Crown, either call upon the subject to fulfil some duty which he is by law bound to perform, or to abstain from any acts or conduct already prohibited by law, are lawful and right, and disobedience to them (while not of itself a misdemeanour) is an aggravation of the offence (see charge of Chief Justice Cockburn to the grand jury in R. v. Eyre (1867) and Case of Proclamations 1610, 12 Co. Rep. 74). The Crown has from time to time legislated by proclamation; and the Statute of Proclamations 1539 provided that proclamations made by the king with the assent of the council should have the force of statute law if they were not prejudicial to "any person's inheritance, offices, liberties, goods, chattels or life." But this enactment was repealed by an act of 1547; and it is certain that a proclamation purporting to be made in the exercise of legislative power by which the sovereign imposes a duty to which the subject is not by law liable, or prohibits under penalties what is not an offence at law, or adds fresh penalties to any offence, is of no effect unless itself issued in virtue of statutory authority (see also ORDER IN COUNCIL). The Crown has power to legislate by proclamation for a newly conquered country (Jenkyns, British Rule and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas); and this power was freely exercised in the Transvaal Colony during the Boer War of 1899-1902. In the British colonies, ordinances are frequently brought into force by proclamation; certain imperial acts do not take effect in a colony until there proclaimed (e.g. the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870); and proclamations are constantly issued in furtherance of executive acts. In many British protectorates the high commissioner or administrator is empowered to legislate by proclamation.. In the old system of real property law in England, fines, levied with "proclamations," i.e. with successive public announcements of the transaction in open court, barred the rights of strangers, as well as parties, in case they had not made claim to the property conveyed within five years thereafter (acts 1483-1484 and 14881489). These proclamations were originally made sixteen times, four times in the term in which the fine was levied, and four times in each of the three succeeding terms. Afterwards the number of proclamations was reduced to one in each of the four terms. The proclamations were endorsed on the back of the record. The system was abolished by the Fines and Recoveries Act 1833. (A. W. R.) PROCLUS, or Proculus (a.d. 410-485), the chief representative of the later Neoplatonists, was born at Constantinople, but |