3. To provide in each polytechnic a permanent staff of teachers, who should be heads of their respective departments and give their whole time to the work of the institution, and thus to establish a corporate or collegiate life in the polytechnic.

4. To ensure that all branches of experimental science are taught experimentally, and that the students have the opportunity of carrying out practical laboratory work, at an inclusive fee not exceeding ten shillings for any one subject.

subjects.

5. To provide efficient workshop instruction in all practical trade 6. To secure that the number of students under the charge of any one teacher in laboratory or workshop classes, or in other classes in which personal supervision is of paramount importance, shall not excced a stated limit (fifteen in the workshop, or twenty 7. To exclude from classes students who, for want of preliminary training, are incapable of profiting by the instruction provided; and to this end to restrict the attendance at workshop classes to those who are actually engaged in the trades concerned, and have thus opportunities of acquiring the necessary manual dexterity in the performance of their daily duties.

in the laboratory).

8. To furnish an adequate fixed stipend for all teachers, in place of a contingent interest in fees and grants.

9. To encourage private subscriptions and donations. 10. To establish an efficient system of inspection. 11. To facilitate the advertisement of polytechnic classes, and especially to invite the co-operation of trade societies in supporting their respective classes. 12. To encourage the higher development of some special branch of study in cach polytechnic.

Council.

representatives of the Central Governing Body, the technical
education board of the London County Council, and the
City and Guilds of London Institute, and its duty was to consult
as to the appropriation of funds, the organiza- London
tion of teaching, the holding of needful examina- Polytechnic
tions, and the supervision of the work generally.
After ten years of work the London polytechnic council
was dissolved in the summer of 1904 in consequence of the
abolition of the technical education board of the London
County Council, when the council became responsible for all
grades of education. A statement below shows the number
and names of the several institutions, and the extent to which
they have been severally aided by the Central Governing Body
and the London County Council.

larity of a novel by Sir Walter Besant, entitled All Sorts and
The "People's Palace" owes its origin in part to the popu-

The

People's
Palace.

Conditions of Men, in which the writer pointed out
the sore need of the inhabitants of East London
for social improvement and healthy recreation,
and set forth an imaginary picture of a "Palace of Delight,"
wherein this need might be partly satisfied. Much public
interest was awakened, large subscriptions were given, and
munificence of the drapers' company in setting aside £7000 a
the Central Governing Body aided the project; but the
year for its permanent maintenance released the London County
Council from any obligation to make a grant. Apart from the
social and recreative side of this popular institution, the edu-
cational section, under the name of the East London Technical
College, steadily increased in numbers and influence under the
fostering care of the drapers' company and has now been re-
cognized as a "school" of the university of London under
the title of "The East London College" and is being utilized
by the London County Council in the same way as other" schools
of the university."

Grants to the London Polytechnics during the Session 1906-1907.

13. To utilize the polytechnic buildings as far as possible in the daytime by the establishment of technical day schools, or otherwise. 14. To secure uniformity in the keeping of accounts. The regulations under which the council has attempted to secure its objects by means of grants have been changed from time to time as the work of the polytechnics has developed, but they provide that the council's aid should be partly in the form of a fixed grant to cach institution, partly a share of the salaries of the principal and the permanent teachers, partly a grant on attendance, the scale depending on the subject and character of the instruction, and partly a subsidy (15%) on voluntary contri-East butions. In addition to the annual grants for maintenance, substantial grants for building and equipment are made from time to time.

The scale of grants adopted by the council for the session 1907-1908 was the following:

i. A fixed grant assigned to each polytechnic. ii. Three-fourths of the salary of the principal (subject to certain conditions).

Battersea Polytechnic
Birkbeck College.
Borough Road Polytechnic
City of London College
London College
Northampton Institute
Northern Polytechnic
Regent Street Polytechnic
South-Western Polytechnic
Woolwich Polytechnic
Sir John Cass's Institute.

Total

iii. Fifty per cent. of the salaries of heads of approved departments.

iv. Ten per cent. of the salaries of other teachers.

"

v. Fifteen per cent. on (voluntary) annual subscriptions or

donations.

vi. Attendance grants on evening classes varying from 1d. to 6d. per student-hour (subject to certain conditions of minimum attendance, eligibility, &c.).

vii. Special grants not exceeding £50 for courses of lectures on particular subjects required or approved by the council.

viii. Special grants towards any departments which the council may desire to see established or maintained.

ix. Equipment grants and building grants in accordance with the special requirements of the institutions. The above grants are independent of any contributions which the council may make towards secondary day schools or day schools of domestic economy or training colleges of domestic economy in the polytechnics.

In the above table the grants are given to the nearest pound. Up to July 1907 the total expenditure of the council upon the polytechnics, apart from the day schools, training colleges, &c., conducted in them, was about £525,000, almost exactly the same as that of the Central Governing Body. The voluntary grants from the central governing body include a contribution towards a compassionate fund, and a pension fund based on endowment assurances for all permanent officers of the polytechnics in receipt of salaries of not less than £100 a year.

The grants received from the board of education amount to about £30,000 a year, while the fees of students and members produce about £45,000. Voluntary subscriptions, including those from city companies and other sources of income, produce about £30,000 in addition, so that out of a total expenditure of about £200,000 a year the council now contributes 30%, With a view to a due division of labour, and also to the co- the Central Governing Body 18%, fees 22%, the board operation of the public bodies concerned, the "London Poly- of education 15% and city companies and other subscribers technic Council" was created in 1894. It was composed of! 15%

The Goldsmiths' Institute at New Cross owed its existence | one-third of the population of London were not natives. They
and its annual maintenance to the generous initiative of the
ancient city gild whose name it bore. It was therefore entirely
independent of pecuniary subsidy from any other public body.
In the year 1900 the number of class entries to this institute
was 7574. In 1904 the goldsmiths" company presented the
premises, together with an annual subsidy, to the university of
London for the purposes of a training college for teachers, so
that from that date it ceased to be one of the London poly-
technics, although, pending the provision of other premises, many
of the technical evening classes have been continued under
the London County Council by permission of the university
with the approval of the company. The clothworkers' com-
pany has also contributed £18,000 to the Northern Polytechnic
at Holloway.

show also that, if all England and Wales be taken together,
the number of persons between twenty and twenty-one is less
by 12.8% than the number between thirteen and fourteen;
but that, taking London alone, the number of persons between
twenty and twenty-one is greater by 14.4% than the number
between thirteen and fourteen. Hence, the proportion of the
inhabitants who are of an age to benefit by polytechnics and
continuation schools is in London exceptionally large. It
would not be right for Londoners to complain that there is thus
cast upon them the duty of providing suitable instruction for so
many immigrants, for if the great city drains the rural districts
of some of their best brain and muscle, she gains much from
| their industry and productive power. The figures, however,
point to the necessity for taking every means possible to
raise the standard, both physical and intellectual, of the
London boy. The immigration into London of youths and
young men means to a great extent the substitution of the
provincially trained improver or artisan for the less fit London
boy, who consequently falls into the ranks of the unskilled,
then of the unemployed and ultimately of the unemployable.
But it follows from the particulars thus given that neither
the supply of suitable provision for mental improvement and
rational recreation for the wage-earning classes, nor the demand
for such provision on the part of the workers themselves is
commensurate with the moral and intellectual needs of a com-
munity of nearly seven millions of people (four and a half
millions within the administrative county). The provision in
evening schools, institutes, classes and polytechnics is still in
some respects far inferior to that which is to be found in most
German and Swiss towns, and needs to be greatly increased.

precede supply; it is simply which is needed not only to satisfy the public demand, but to create it. As new and well-devised opportunities for mental culture are placed within reach, they will be more and more appreciated, new and healthier appetites will be stimulated, the art of employing leisure wisely and happily will be more systematically studied, and the polytechnics will become still more important centres of civilizing and educating influence than they have hitherto been.

In all these institutions the general aims have been practically the same, although special features have been differentiated Alms and in order to meet the local needs and the wishes of Methods. the inhabitants. In all there are laboratories and lecture rooms, trade classes, art studios, gymnasia, provision for manual training and domestic economy and applied science. In nearly all, at first, mechanical and manual instruction were the prominent objects in view, partly owing to the conditions under which grants were made by the science and art department. But of late increased attention has been paid year by year to literary and humaner studies, and to general mental cultivation, pursued pari passu with technical and scientific training. The aid of the London organization for university extension, now a department of the university, has been especially serviceable in providing courses of lectures and classes in literary subjects at nearly all the polytechnics. As subsidiary to their main work, some of them have estab-In matters relating to the higher life, demand does not always lished junior continuation schools, with a view to provide suitable instruction for scholars who have left the public elementary schools and are not yet prepared to enter the technical and trade classes. Although the workshops and the classes for artisans are used chiefly in the evenings, there is an increasing number of day students: e.g. at the Northampton Polytechnic Institute in Clerkenwell there is a very important day school of engineering conducted on the "sandwich system, "the students entering engineering works for the summer months and returning to the polytechnic for the winter session; at the Battersea Polytechnic there is a very important training college for teachers of domestic economy; at Regent Street there are day schools in engineering, architecture, photo-process and carriage-building; at the South-Western Polytechnic there are important schools of mechanical and electrical engineering and a training college for women teachers of physical exercises; at the Northern Polytechnic, as at Battersea, there is a training college for teachers of domestic economy, and there are departments of commerce and of physics and chemistry, while the Woolwich Polytechnic receives in the daytime, by special arrangement with the war office, a large number of engineering apprentices employed in the arsenal. In short, the schemes of the several institutions are so elastic that the governing bodies are at liberty to open any classes or to try any educational or recreative experiment for which they can find a genuine local demand. The total number of scholars in the polytechnics and their branch institutions is variously estimated at from 40,000 to 50,000, and the total number of regular scholars in the evening schools of the council does not exceed 100,000. These figures may be usefully compared with the census returns, which show that within the metropolitan area there are 704,414 persons between the ages of thirteen and twentyone. It is a noteworthy fact that, whereas in the population statistics for the whole of England and Wales the number at each year of age is regularly diminished by death from eight years onwards, there is a steady increase in London, year by year, from fourteen up to the age of thirty. This fact is owing to the constant immigration of young men and women from the provinces to the metropolis. The census commissioners in their report for 1901 (p. 15) computed that more than

In particular, the reconstituted university of London has been placed in new and most helpful relation to the best of the polytechnics. By the statutes the senate of the university is empowered to include in the list of " schools of the university all institutions which are duly equipped and able to furnish suitable instruction of an advanced and scholarly type; and also to recognize all thoroughly qualified professors in their several faculties and subjects as "teachers of the university," although some of their classes may meet in the evening only, and no student is to be prevented from taking a degree as an internal student of the university solely because he can attend classes only in the evening. There is thus a way open for the due recognition of the polytechnics as part of the teaching machinery of the university, and for the admission of the best students as undergraduates, with all the rights of internal students. The great possibilities of the metropolitan university under its new conditions were at first hardly revealed or accurately foreseen. But there were during the session 1906-1907 no less than eighty-six recognized "teachers of the university" on the staffs of the London polytechnics and more than 750 students who were working for London University degrees in the polytechnic classes. There is no reason to fear that the recreative, social, manual and industrial training, to which at first the special attention of the founder of the Regent Street Polytechnic was directed, will suffer from a fuller expansion of the academic and literary side of “polytechnic "life. Rather it may be hoped that the due co-ordination of the practical with the purely intellectual purposes of these institutions will serve to give to all the students, whatever their future destination may be, a truer and broader conception of the value of mental culture for its own sake

See also a paper by Mr Sidney Webb, The London Polytechnic fied walls, the external part of the introvert being closed during Institutes, in the second volume of special reports on educational retraction by a membranous collar. Zooccia either arising from subjects (1898) issued by the Education Department; the Report a stolon, without lateral connexion with one another, or laterally of the Central Governing Body of the London Parochial Charities: united to form sheets. Alcyonidium, Flustrella, Bowerbankia the Annual Reports of the London County Council; the Polytechnic (fig. 3), Farrella, Victorella, Paludicello, yirinudną to inskisqadar Magazine, published from time to time at the institute in Regent ufiani ali o) eshing aards lo 1 1 0001 vỵ odi, al Street; and various memoirs and papers contained in the Proceed bazqmos "dumeblog ings of the International Congress on Technical Education (1897), especially two-that by Mr Quintin Hogg, detailing his own early to variou s of qbledos iluang experience in founding the first polytechnic, and that of Dr William be aroɔsud vol agöllop peiniaus Garnett, then secretary of the Technical Education Board. Age Fyloq nobnoj sila

or

(After Hincks) quidímiog yd [ɔnuo) ylang") nolitol 911 219 FIG. 2.-Part of a Branch of Crisia eburnea,pada w in zooecia; x, imperfectly developed ovicell, he and gasą less calcified walls. Orifice closed by a lid-like operculum. PolySub-order 5. CHEILOSTOMATA (Busk).-Zooecia with more o morphism usually occurs, certain individuals having the form of i avicularia or vibracula. The globular swellings surmounting ovicells commonly found as the orifices are not direct modifications of zooecia, and each typically contains a single egg or embryo. Membranipora, Flustra, Onychocella, Lunuinalites, Steganoporellato Scrupo cellaria, Menipea, Caberea, Bicellaria, Bugula, Beania,

G. F. W. G.) POLYXENA, in Greek legend, daughter of Priam, king of Troy, and Hecuba. She had been betrothed to Achilles, who was slain by Paris in the temple of Apollo Thymbracus, where the marriage was to have been celebrated (Hyginus, Fab. 110). The shade of Achilles afterwards appeared to the returning Greeks in the Thracian Chersonese and demanded the sacrifice of Polyxena, who was put to death by Neoptolemus, son of was to david, Melan, us, song of The tragic story is the subject of the Hecuba of Euripides, the band Troades of Seneca and the Polyxena of Sophocles, of which only hotai su a few fragments remain. According to Philostratus (Heroica, 20, 18), Polyxena fled to the Greeks after the of Achilles and committed suicide on his tomb. ster the murder otop vong sidelina lo viqque odiods of POLYZOA, in zoology, a term (introduced by J. V. Thompson, bɔngine 1830) synonymous with Bryozoa (Ehrenberg, 1831) for a group o commonly included with the Brachiopoda in the Molluscoidea (Milne Edwards, 1843). The correctness of this association is questionable, and the Polyzoa are here treated as a primary division or phylum of the animal kingdom. They may be izvi defined as aquatic animals, forming colonies by budding; with autool to fo ciliated retractile tentacles and a U-shaped alimentary canal.danielos The phylum is subdivided as follows. 2013am al -duty svad

Bobodo lea0 516 zarzina zasbora yub to 150:num How (After Hincks) Jujiten E FIG. 4. Zooccia of Umbonula pavonella, showing a pair of minute avicularia on either side of the orifice of each zooecium. arod

Class I. ENTOPROCTA (Nitsche). Lophophore circular, in-bring of cluding both mouth and anus. Tentacles infolded, during silduq of oved odw each dɔe rol retraction, into a vestibule which can be indat onset banging 192 he ta closed by a sphincter. Body-wall not tot esta sinu egode did nai dgradili, calcified, body-cavity absent. Definite nic orbit an ovali „quineza ad excretory organs present. Reproductive biarhorlo dolgandito, area organs with ducts leading to the vesti-tool (After Hincks.) bule. Zooids possessing a high degree FIG. 3. Part of a branch of of individuality. Loxosoma Pedicellina Bowerbankia pustulosa, showing the thread-like stolon from which (fig. 1), Urnatella. adresinga ol arise young and mature zooecia. Class II. ECTOPROCTA (Nitsche). The tentacles are expanded in Lophophore circular or horseshoe some of the latter. tovonovo puteamul to avidinatzol sgɔf shaped, including the mouth but not Membraniporella, Cribrilina, Cellaria, Micropora, Selenaria, Um the anus. Tentacles retractile into an bonula (ng. 4), Lepralia, Schizoporella, Cellepora, Mucronella, introvert("tentacle-sheath"). Body-Order 2. PHYLACTOLAEMATA (Allman).-Lophophore horse-shoe Smillia, Relepora, Catenicella, Microporella, Adeona. wall membranous or calcified, body-shaped, or in Fredericella circular. "Mouth guarded by an epistome. cavity distinct.. Specific excretory Body-cavities of zooids continuous with one another. Body-wall organs absent, with the doubtful excep- uncalcified and muscular. Reproduction sexual and by means of tion of the Phylactolaemata. Repro-statoblasts," peculiar internal buds protected by a chitinous shell. ductive organs not continuous with ducts. Fredericella, Plumatella (fig. 5), Lophopus, Cristalella, Peclinatella, Zooids usually connected laterally with their neighbours., o moitinoper sub Order 1. GYMNOLAEMATA (Allman).Lophophore circular, with no epistome. FIG. 1.-Part of the Body-cavities of zooids not continuous creeping stolon, with with one another. Body-wall not muscular. zooids, of Pedicellina Sub-order 1. TREPOSTOMATA (Ulrich); belgica. Fossil.-Zooccia, long and coherent, prise, c, Stalks of zooids matic or cylindrical, with terminal orifices, of different ages; b, their wall thin and simple in structure proximally, thickened and complicated distally. Cavity of the zooecium subdivided by transverse diaphragms, most numerous in the distal portion. Orifices of the zooecia often separated by pores (mesopores). Sub-order 2. CRYPTOSTOMATA (Vine); Fossil.-Zooccia usually short. Orifice concealed at the bottom of a vestibular shaft, surrounded by a solid or vesicular calcareous deposit.

(After van Beneden.)

bud.

Sub-order 3. CYCLOSTOMATA (Busk).-Zooccia prismatic or cylindrical, with terminal, typically circular orifice, not protected by any special organ. The ovicells are modified zooecia, and contain numerous embryos which in the cases so far investigated arise by fission of a primary embryo developed from an egg. Crisia (fig. 2), Tubulipora, Hornera, Lichenopora.

Sub-order 4. CTENOSTOMATA (Busk).-Zooecia with soft uncalci

Hatschek (1888) treated the Entoprocta as a division of his group Scolecida, characterized by the possession of a primary body-cavity and of protonephridia; while he placed the EctoProcta, with the Phoronida and Brachiopoda, in a distinct group, the Tentaculata. Against this view may be urged the essential similarity between the processes of budding in Entoprocta and Ectoprocta (cf. Seeliger, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. xlix. 168; 1., 560), and the resemblances in the development of the two classes.

Of the forms above indicated there is no palaeontological evidence with regard to the Entoprocta. The Trepostomata are in the main Palaeozoic, although Heteropora, of which recent species exist, is placed by Gregory in this division. The Cryptostomata are also Palaeozoic, and include the abundant and widely-distributed genus Fenestella. The Cyclostomata are numerous in Palaeozoic rocks, but attained a specially predominant position in the Creta ceous strata, where they are represented by a profusion of genera and species; while they still survive in considerable numbers at the present day. The Ctenostomata are ill adapted for preservation as fossils, though remains referred to this group have been

1 Calcareous spicules have been described by Lomas in Alcyoni. dium gelatinosum.