A Life of Pringle by Andrew Kippis is prefixed to the volume | Thoby Prinsep, who was for sixteen years a member of the containing the Six Discourses. The library of the College of Physi cians of Edinburgh possesses ten folio volumes of his unedited MSS. including an essay "On Air, Climate, Diet and Exercise." There are Eloges on him by Vicq d'Azyr and Condorcet. PRINT, the colloquial abbreviation used to describe printed cloths generally, though it is most commonly applied to the staple kinds of cotton goods. The word must be distinguished from "printer," which refers to the regular kinds of cotton cloths intended for printing. (See TEXTILE PRINTING,), Council of India, had settled at Little Holland House, which became a centre of artistic society. Henry Prinsep was an intimate friend of G. F. Watts, under whom his son first studied. PRINGSHEIM, NATHANAEL (1823-1894), German botanist, Val Prinsep also worked in Paris in the atelier Gleyre; and was born at Wziesko in Silesia, on the 30th of November 1823." Taffy" in his friend Du Maurier's novel Trilby, is said to He studied at the universities of Breslau, Leipzig, and Berlin have been sketched from him. He was an intimate friend successively. He graduated in 1848 as doctor of philosophy of Millais and of Burne-Jones, with whom he travelled with the thesis De forma et incremento stratorum crassiorum in in Italy. He had a share with Rossetti and others in the plantarum cellula, and rapidly became a leader in the great decoration of the hall of the Oxford Union. He first exhibited botanical renaissance of the 19th century. His contributions at the Royal Academy in 1862 with his "Bianca Capella," to scientific algology were of striking interest. Pringsheim his first picture, which attracted marked notice, being a portrait was among the very first to demonstrate the occurrence of a (1866) of General Gordon in Chinese costume; the best of his later sexual process in this class of plants, and he drew from his exhibits were " A Versailles," "The Emperor Theophilus chooses observations weighty conclusions as to the nature of sexuality. his Wife," "The Broken Idol and "The Goose Girl." He was Together with the French investigators G. Thuret and E. Bornet, elected A.R.A. in 1879 and R.A. in 1894. In 1877 he went to Pringsheim ranks as the founder of our scientific knowledge India and painted a huge picture of the Delhi durbar, exhibited of the algae. Among his researches in this field may be menin 1880, and afterwards hung at Buckingham Palace. He tioned those on Vaucheria (1855), the Oedogoniaceae (1855-1858), married in 1884 Florence, daughter of the well-known colthe Coleochaeteae (1860), Hydrodictyon (1861), and Pandorina lector, Frederick Leyland. Prinsep wrote two plays, Cousin (1869); the last-mentioned memoir bore the title Beobachtungen Dick and Monsieur le Duc, produced at the Court and the St über die Paarung de Zoosporen. This was a discovery of James's theatres respectively; two novels; and Imperial India: fundamental importance; the conjugation of zoospores was an Artist's Journal (1879). He was an enthusiastic volunteer, regarded by Pringsheim, with good reason, as the primitive and one of the founders of the Artists' Corps. He died on the form of sexual reproduction. A work on the course of mor11th of November 1904. phological differentiation in the Sphacelariaceae (1873), a family of marine algae, is of great interest, inasmuch as it treats of evolutionary questions; the author's point of view is that of Naegeli rather than Darwin. Closely connected with Pringsheim's algological work was his long-continued investigation of the Saprolegniaceae, a family of algoid fungi, some of which PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre), the art have become notorious as the causes of disease in fish. Among or practice of transferring by pressure, letters, characters or his contributions to our knowledge of the higher plants, his designs upon paper or other impressible surfaces, usually by exhaustive monograph on the curious genus of water-ferns, means of ink or oily pigment. As thus defined, it includes three Savinia, deserves special mention. His career as a morphol- entirely different processes: copperplate printing, lithographic ogist culminated in 1876 with the publication of a memoir on or chemical stone-printing, and letterpress printing. The differthe alternation of generations in thallophytes and mosses. From ence between the three lies in the nature or conformation of the 1874 to the close of his life Pringsheim's activity was chiefly surface which is covered with the pigment and afterwards directed to physiological questions: he published, in a long gives a reproduction in reverse on the material impressed. series of memoirs, a theory of the carbon-assimilation of green For the nature and method of preparing these surfaces see plants, the central point of which is the conception of the respectively ENGRAVING (and allied articles), LITHOGRAPHY and chlorophyll-pigment as a screen, with the main function of TYPOGRAPHY. In copperplate printing the whole of the plate protecting the protoplasm from light-rays which would neuis first inked, the flat surface is then cleaned, leaving ink in the tralize its assimilative activity by stimulating too active re-incisions or trenches cut by the engraver, so that, when dampened spiration. This view has not been accepted as offering an ade- paper is laid over the plate and pressure is brought to quate explanation of the phenomena. Pringsheim founded bear, the paper sinks into the incisions and takes up the ink, in 1858, and edited till his death, the classical Jahrbuch für which makes an impression in line or lines on the paper. In wissenschaftliche Botanik, which still bears his name. He was also lithographic printing the surface of the stone, which is practifounder, in 1882, and first president, of the German Botanical cally level, is protected by dampening against taking the ink Society. His work was for the most part carried on in his except where the design requires. In letterpress printing the private laboratory in Berlin; he only held a teaching post of printing surface is in relief, and alone receives the ink, the importance for four years, 1864-1868, when he was professor at remainder being protected by its lower level. Before the invenJena. In early life he was a keen politician on the Liberal tion of typography, pages of books, or anything of a broadside side. He died in Berlin on the 6th of October 1894. nature, were printed from woodcuts, i.e. blocks cut with a knife on wood plankwise, as distinct from wood engravings which are cut with a burin on the end grain, a more modern innovation. These woodcuts, like the lithographic or engraved surface, served one definite purpose only, but in typography the types can be distributed and used again in other combinations. A fuller account of Pringsheim's career will be found in Nature, (1895) vol. li., and in the Berichte der deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft, (1895) vol. xiii. The latter is by his friend and colleague, Ferdinand Cohn. (D. H. S.) PRINSEP, JAMES (1799-1840), Anglo-Indian scholar and antiquary, was born on the 20th of August 1799. In 1819 he was given an appointment in the Calcutta mint, where he ultimately became assay-master, succeeding H. H. Wilson, whom he likewise succeeded as secretary of the Asiatic Society. Apart from architectural work (chiefly at Benares), his leisure was devoted to Indian inscriptions and numismatics, and he is remembered as the first to decipher and translate the rock edicts of Asoka. Returning to England in 1838 in broken health, he died in London on the 22nd of April 1840. Prinsep's Ghat, an archway on the bank of the Hugli, was erected to his memory by the citizens of Calcutta. PRINSEP, VALENTINE CAMERON (1838-1904), English artist, was born on the 4th of February 1838. His father, Henry The term "printing" is often used to include all the various processes that go to make the finished product; but in this article it is properly confined to "press-work," i.e. to the work of the printing-press, by which the book, newspaper, or other printed article, when set up in type and ready as a surface to be actually impressed on the paper, is finally converted into the shape in which it is to be issued or published. History of Printing-press. Before dealing with modern machinery it will be necessary to consider the historical evolution of the printing-press, especially since the middle of the 19th century, from which point printing machinery has developed in a most remarkable manner. It is not clear how the first printers struck off their copies, but without doubt Gutenberg did use at an early period in his career a mechanical press of some kind, which was constructed of wood. In fact he could not have produced his famous forty-two line Bible without such aid. The earliest picture of a press shows roughly the construction to have been that of an upright frame, the power exerted Wooden by a movable handle, placed in a screw which was Hand-low tightened up to secure the requisite impression, and presses. was loosened again after the impression was obtained. The type pages were placed on a flat bed of solid wood or stone, and it was quite a labour to run this bed into its proper position at a smaller expenditure of labour, and it allowed of larger and 2279 Vos sod complete press to stand upon. The staple was united at the noilesgue all top and bottom, but the neck and body were left open, the former bra Joof prit is flame for the mechanism and the latter for the platen and the bed 19built & no boxit when run in preparatory to taking the impression. The upper novo ne tropiq and part of the staple, called the nut, answered the same purpose as adio bas dialog the head in the older kind of wooden press, and was in fact a box gvintor'sdino guling with a female screw in which the screw of the spindle worked. noloog doua The lower portion of the neck was occupied by a piston and cup, Brindabit of tol pow 11 in and on which the toe of the spindle worked. On the near Ansvnt BiH FIG. 1.-Blaeu's Wooden Hand-press. gobong side of the staple was a vertical pillar, termed the arbor, the under the hanging but fixed horizontal plane, called the platen, lower end of which was inserted into the staple at the top which gave the necessary impress when screwed down by the of the shoulder-the upper end passing through a top-plate, aid of the movable bar. This labour had to be repeated in which being screwed on to the upper part of the staple held it order to release the printed sheet and before another copy firmly. The extreme upper end of the arbor, which was hexcould be struck off. This same press, with a few modifications, agonal, received a head, which was really a lever of some length; was apparently still in general use till the early part of the 17th this head was connected by a coupling-bar to a similar lever or century, when Willem Janszon Blaeu (1571-1638) of Amsterdam, head, into which the upper end of the spindle was inserted. who was appointed map maker to the Dutch Republic in 1633, The bar by which the power was applied by the pressman was made some substantial improvements in it. Our first authority fixed into the arbor, and not into the spindle, so that the lever on printing, Joseph Moxon, in his Mechanick Exercises, as was the whole width of the press, instead of half, as in Blaeu's Applied to the Art of Printing (vol. i., 1683), says, "There are wooden press, and it was better placed for the application of the two sorts of presses in use, viz. the old fashion and the new worker's strength. There was also another lever to the arbor fashion," and he gives credit to Blaeu for the invention of the head in addition to that of the spindle head; and lastly, the screw new and decidedly improved press (fig. 1). itself was so enlarged that it greatly increased the power. The platen was screwed on to the under surface of the spindle; the table or bed had slides underneath which moved in, and not on, of strips of webbing fastened to each end and passed round a drum or wheel. As the platen was very heavy the operator was assisted in raising it from the type-forme by a balance weight suspended upon a hooked lever at the back of the press. This somewhat counterbalanced the weight of the platen, raised it after the impression had been taken, and brought the barhandle back again to its original position, ready for another pull. Blaeu's improvement consisted of putting the spindle of the screw through a square block which was guided in the wooden frame, and from this or cords. This block ock the platen was suspended by wires ribs as in the older form of press, and was run in and out by means e a more rigid platen, and at the same time ensured a more equal motion to the screw when actuated by the bar-handle. He also invented a device which allowed the bed on which the type pages were placed to run in and out more readily, thus reducing the great labour involved in that part of the work of the older form of press, and he also used a new kind of iron lever or handle to turn the screw which applied the necessary pressure. The value of these various improvements, which were in details rather than in principles, was speedily recognized, and the press was introduced into England and became known as the "new fashion." From this it will be observed that in a general way there had only been two kinds of wooden presses in use for a period of no less than three hundred and fifty years, and when the work of some of the early printers is studied, it is marvellous how often good results were obtained from such crude appliances. The iron press (fig. 2) invented by Charles, 3rd earl Stanhope (1753-1816), at the end of the 18th century was a decided advance on those made of wood. Greater power was obtained The Stanhope press, which is still in use, was soon followed by other hand-presses made of iron, with varying changes of details. The most successful of these were the Albion and Columbian presses, the former of English manufacture, and the latter invented (1816) by an American, George Clymer (1754-1834), of Philadelphia.com agents The Albion press (fig. 3), which was designed by Richard Whittaker Cope, was afterwards much improved upon by John Hopkinson (1849-1898). It is still used where hand printing prevails, and it was this form of press which was employed by William Morris at his famous, but short-lived, Kelmscott Press, in the production of many sumptuous books, the most celebrated | the type surface with a roller which carries just sufficient ink of which was the Chaucer, a large folio volume, illustrated by properly distributed to preserve uniformity of "colour." Sir Edward Burne-Jones. The chief characteristics of the Having dealt with hand-presses, we must now go back to the Albion are its lightness of build and its ease in running; the pull end of the 18th century, when the first experiments were made is short, the power great, and the means whereby it is attained to devise some mechanical means of producing larger printed so simple that the press does not readily get out of order. It is sheets, and at a quicker rate. In England the broad distinction easily taken to pieces for cleaning, and readily re-erected. The between "presses" and "machines" is generally considered power is obtained by pulling the bar-handle across, which causes to rest in the fact that the former are worked by hand, and the latter by steam, gas or electricity; and the men who work by these two methods are called respectively "pressmen" and "machine minders " or machine managers." But in America the terms "presses" and "pressmen " are universally applied to machines and the men who operate them. For the purposes of this article presses and machines are used as synonymous terms. Various schemes had been propounded with a view of increasing the output of the hand-press, and in 1790 William Nicholson (1753-1815) evolved his ideas on the The First subject, which were suggestions rather than definite Cylinder inventions. Nicholson was not a printer, but, as he Machine. was an author and editor, it is presumed that he had some knowledge of printing. His proposals were to print from type placed either on a flat bed or a cylinder, and the impression was to be given by another cylinder covered with some suitable material, the paper being fed in between the type and the impression cylinder, and the ink applied by rollers covered with cloth or leather, or both. While Nicholson's schemes did not bear any practical result they certainly helped others later on. His suggestion to print from type made wedge-shaped (that is, smaller at the foot and wider at the top) to allow of its being so fixed on a cylinder that it would radiate from the centre and thus present an even printing surface, was adopted later by Applegath and others, and really was the first conception of printing on the rotary principle which has now been brought to such perfection. 7 FIG. 3.-Payne & Sons' Albion Hand-press. an inclined piece of wedge-shaped steel, called the chill, to become perpendicular; in so doing the platen is forced down, and the impression takes place at the moment the chill is brought into a vertical position. On the return of the bar the platen is raised by a spiral spring, placed in a box and fixed at the head of the press. The larger sizes of these presses usually print a sheet of double crown, measuring 30x 20 in. Although the Columbian is not so much in demand as the Albion, it is still employed for heavy hand-work because of its greater stability and power. This power is acquired by a very massive lever, moving on a pivot bolt in the top of the near side of the staple, and passing across the press to the further side of the frame, at which end the power is applied through the coupling-bar by a bar-handle working from the near side. The platen is attached to the centre of the lever by a square bar of iron, and its vertical descent is assured by two projecting guides, one from each cheek; it is then raised from the type-forme, and the iron bar carried back by two levers-the one attached to and above the head and weighted with the eagle; the other behind the press, attached to the arm to which the coupling-bar is fixed, and which also has a weight at the end. The great power of this press adapts it to the working of large and solid formes in printing, but it is somewhat slower in action than the Albion press, which is both lighter in construction and quicker in working. The average output of the modern hand-press, when all is made ready for running, is about two hundred and fifty impressions per hour. This number, it should be said, is the product of two men who work together as "partners." One inks the type-forme and keeps a sharp look-out for any inequality of inking, and sees generally that the work is being turned out in a workmanlike manner. The other lays on the sheet to certain marks, runs the carriage in under the platen, and pulls the barhandle across to give the necessary impression. He then runs back the carriage and takes out the printed sheet, which he replaces by another sheet, and repeats the different operations for the next impression. During the interval between taking off the printed sheet and laying on the next one his partner inks It was left to Friedrich König (1774-1833), a German, to produce the first really practical printing machine. His invention was to print type placed on a flat bed, the impression being given by a large cylinder, under which the type passed, but his inking appliances were not satisfactory. He induced the proprietor of The Times (London) to take two of these machines, and in 1814 that newspaper was printed with steam power at the rate of 1100 impressions per hour, a great advance on the number produced up to that time. Both Nicholson's and König's machines printed only one side at a time-the second or backing printing being a separate and distinct operationbut they really embodied the general principles on which all other machines have been constructed or modelled. It will be understood that Nicholson's theories were to print both from the flat and from type arranged in circular or cylinder form. These two principles are defined as reciprocating, for the flat bed which travels backwards and forwards; and rotary, for that which continuously revolves or rotates. König's invention was a reciprocating one. Double Two other classes of presses of somewhat different design were largely in operation in the middle of the 19th centurythe "double platen," which still printed only one side at each impression from cach end, and the "perfecting machine," which was made with two large cylinders and printed from two typeformes placed on separate beds. Although the latter machine turned out sheets printed on both sides before it delivered them (hence its name), the second impression was still a distinct operation. The double platen press was somewhat analogous to the hand-press, both the type beds and impressions being flat. A machine of this kind, Machine. if it printed a sheet of double demy, which measures 35X22} in., was about 13 ft. in length, and the platen itself, of very massive construction, was placed in the centre. This platen had perpendicular motion, being guided in grooves and worked by a connecting rod fixed to a cross beam and crank, which acquired its motion from the main shaft. There were two type beds and two inking tables, which travelled backwards and forwards, and one platen only, situated in the middle of the machine, which in turn gave the needful impression as the type-formes passed underneath. The sheets were laid or fed to certain marks between the frisket and tympan, and when these were closed together the carriage was propelled under the platen and the impression was given to that portion of the machine, while at the other end another sheet was being fed in ready to receive its impression in due course. About 1845 Robert Hoe & Co. of New York, and subsequently of London, had constructed, to meet the increased demands of newspapers, the " Hoe Type Revolving Machine," one good point of which was an apparatus for securely fastening in the type on a large central cylinder fixed horizontally. This was accomplished by the construction of cast-iron beds, one for each separate page (not column, as in Applegath's machine). The column rules were made tapering towards the feet of the type, and the firmly in the required position to form a complete circle, thus allowing the cylinder to revolve at a greater speed than Applegath's, which was polygonal. Around the large type cylinders were placed the smaller impression cylinders, the number of these being governed by the output required. Hoe's first presses were four-feeders, but as many as ten feeds were supplied, as in the case of the two presses built to replace the Applegath machine for The Times, each of which produced about 2000 impressions from each feed, making a total of 20,000 per hour, printed on one side, or from two machines 20,000 sheets printed on both sides. As will be observed, the only differences in principle between these two type revolving machines were in the positions of the respective cylinders, and the fixing of the type to form a printing surface. It was once thought that the finest work could not be produced by a cylinder impressing a surface in the progress of its recipro-type was securely locked in on these beds so that it could be held cating motion, but that it was likely to give a slurred or blurred impression. This is why machines of flat construction were so long employed for the best class of work. But cylinder presses are now made so truly turned, and geared to such nicety, that this idea no longer prevails. The cylinder press is able to produce generally quite as good work as the double platen, its speed is much greater, and it requires a smaller amount of power to drive it. The perfecting machine has had a great vogue, and has been much improved from time to time, especially in America, though the two-revolution machine in recent years Perfecting superseded it, whether temporarily or not being Machine. still uncertain. We shall deal with it more fully below in relation to the modern and more complicated class of machinery; and this also applies to the ordinary stop or single cylinder, and small platen machines, both of which have been in use many years, and are still in demand. It was Sir Rowland Hill who first suggested the possibilities of a press which should print both sides at once, from a roll or reel of paper. This was about 1825, but it was William A. Before the general introduction of rotary machines which Bullock (1813-1867) of Philadelphia who in 1865 invented the print from curved stereotype plates from an endless web or reel first machine to print from a continuous web of paper. This Type of paper (see below), several other presses of a revol- machine had two pairs of cylinders, that is, two type or stereotype Revolving ving character were made, to some extent based on cylinders, and two others which gave the impression as the web Machines. Nicholson's ideas. The first printing surface used passed between. The second impression cylinder was made was ordinary type, because the difficulty of curving the stereo- somewhat larger so as to give a greater tympan surface, to lessen type plates had not been surmounted. This type was fixed, the off-set from the side first printed. In his machine the stereoboth in vertical and in perpendicular positions, upon a cylinder, type plates were not made to fill the whole periphery of the forme round which rotated other cylinders, which held and compressed cylinders so as to allow of the sheets being cut before printing, the sheets against the larger one, which also revolved and carried a difficulty which the first machines did not satisfactorily overthe printing surface. These machines were made to print come. The sheets were severed by knives placed on the cylinseveral sheets at a time, and were called four-, six-, eight- orders, and when cut were carried by grippers and tapes; and ten-feeders, according to the number of sheets fed in and printed. delivery was made by means of automatic metal fingers fixed They necessitated a great deal of labour, because each feed upon endless belts at such distances apart as to seize each sheet required a separate layer-on and taker-off besides the superin-in succession as it left the last printing cylinder. These presses tending printer, and other hands to carry away the sheets as fast as they accumulated at the different taking-off boards. Besides, these sheets all had to be folded by hand. In this class of machine various improvements were made from time to time by different manufacturers, each profiting by the experiences of the others, and two kinds of such revolving presses may now be given as examples. After many experiments Augustus Applegath (1789-1871) in 1848 constructed for The Times (London), a machine which was an eight-feeder, built entirely on the cylindrical principle. the cylinders placed not in a horizontal but in a vertical position. The type was fixed on a large cylinder, and instead of the printing surface presenting a complete circle, the different columns were each arranged so as to form a polygon. Around this large type cylinder were eight smaller ones, all upright, for taking the impression for each of the eight sheets fed in separately, and rollers were so arranged as to apply the ink to the type as it passed alternately from one impression cylinder to the other. The sheets were laid in from eight different feed-boards, placed horizontally, and they passed through tapes, when they were seized by another series of tapes and then turned sideways between their corresponding impression and type cylinder, thus obtaining sheets printed on one side only. The impression cylinder then delivered the sheets separately (stiu in a vertical position) into the hands of the boys employed as takers-off. The results from this press were, at the time, considered fairly satisfactory, the number of copies (about 8000) printed per hour from one type-forme having been materially increased by the employing of the eight different stations to feed the sheets in, all of which in turn were printed from the same single type surface. were not at first reliable in working, especially in the cutting and delivery of the sheets after printing, but were finally so far improved that the Bullock press came into quite general use. The inventor was killed by being caught in the driving belt of one of his own presses. Modern Presses. Presses and 3. Single cylinder machines (in England generally called "Wharfedales "), usually built on the "stop" cylinder principle, and printing one side of the sheet only. 4. Perfecting machines, usually with two cylinders, and printing or "perfecting " both sides of a sheet before it leaves the machine, but with two distinct operations. 5. Two-revolution machines, which, although with but one cylinder, have largely superseded perfecting machines, as their output has been increased and the quality of their work compares favourably with that of the average two-cylinder. 6. Two-colour machines, usually made with one feed, that is, with only one cylinder, but with two printing surfaces, and two sets of inking apparatus one at each end of the machine. Occasionally these machines are made with two cylinders. 7. Rotary machines, printing trom an endless web of paper from curved stereotype or clectrotype plates, principally used |